History Solution Class 9 Chapter 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World

5. Pastoralists in the Modern World

Facts that Matter

1. Pastoralism has been important in societies like India and Africa.

2. Let’s see Pastoralism in the context of India:

·         Pastoral nomads are found in different parts of India. They can be seen mountains, on the plateaus, plains and deserts of India.

·         The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are great herders of goat and sheep. They moved annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In winters, when the high mountains were covered with snow, they lived with their herds in the low hills of Shivalik range. By the end of April, they began their northern march for their summer grazing grounds.

·         In a different area of the mountains, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh had a similar cycle of seasonal movement.

·         In Garhwal and Kumaon, the Gujjar cattle herders came down to the dry forests of the bhabar in the winter, and went up to the high meadows i.e. the bugyals in summer.

·         Dhangars were found in the central plateau of Maharashtra. Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders. They grew crops like bajra and rice.

·         In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau was covered with stone and grass, inhabited by cattle, goat and sheep herders. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.

·         Banjaras, a well known group of graziers, were found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

·         Raikas were found in the deserts of Rajasthan. One group of Raikas, known as the Maru (desert) Raikas-hearded camels and another group reared sheep and goat.

·         Under the colonial rule, the life of these pastoralists changed dramatically. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movement were regulated and the revenue they had to pay increased. Their agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were adversely affected.

·         All these happened due to various Forest Act introduced by the colonial government. These Acts prevented the pastoralists from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. Even in the areas they were allowed entry, their movements were regulated.

·         The British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They disturbed mobile craftsmen and traders and wanted them to settle in fixed places. In 1871, they passed the Criminal Tribes Act which classified many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists as Criminal Tribes. Once this act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements.

·         From the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government enacted Waste Land Rules in various parts of India. By these rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists.

·         All these measures led to a serious shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields the available area of pasture declined.

·         The reservation of forests too restricted free movement of the pastoralists in the forests. They could no longer freely pasture their cattle in the forests. Now, the pastoralists had to feed their animal stock on whatever grazing land remained. This led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. As a result, the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock.

3. Pastoralism in the context of Africa:

·         Over half of the world’s pastoral population lives in Africa. They include communities like Bedomins, Berbers, Masai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them now live in semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is difficult. They raise cattle, camels, goats sheep and donkeys; and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool.

·         Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over the colonial and post colonial periods. We will discuss these changes in brief by looking at one pastoral community-the Masai.

·         The Masai cattle herders live primarily in East Africa (Southern Kenya and Tanzania). They new laws and regulations of the colonial government took away their land and restricted their movement. Large areas of their grazing land were turned into cultivated fields and game reserves like the Masai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengiti Park in Tanzania. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves. They could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas.

·         The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small are of land that the Masai were confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a deterioration of the quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply, which created problem for the animals.

·         Like the Masai, other pastoral groups were also forced to live within the confines of special reserves.

·         In Masai land, all pastoralists were not equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. To administer the affairs of the Masai, the British appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Masai, who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe.

·         These chiefs were highly selfish. They accumulated wealth over time. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods and lands. They managed to survive the devastations of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non-pastoral income and could buy animals when their stock was depleted.

·         But the poor pastoralists had nothing other than their livestock. Most often, they did not have the resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famine, they lost nearly everything.

·         One unique of the pastoralists must be mentioned here. In spite of several problems they do adapt to new times.

Words that Matter:

·         Nomads: People who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living.

·         Bhabar: A dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.

·         Bugyal: Vast meadows in the high mountains.

·         Kharif: The autumn crop, usually harvested between September and October.

·         Rabi: The spring crop, usually harvested after March.

·         Stubble: Lower ends of grains stalks left in the ground after harvesting.

·         Waste land: Uncultivated land that produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce.

·         Customary rights: Rights that people are used to by custom and tradition.

·         Livestock: Farm animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.

Dateline:

·         1871: The Criminal Tribes Act was passed.

·         Between 1850s and 1880s: The right to collect tax was auctioned out to contractors.

·         1933 and 1934: Over half of the cattle in the Masai Reserve died due to severe drought.

Activities

1. Imagine that it is 1950 and you are a 60 year-old Raika herder living in post independence India. You are telling your grand-daughter about the changes which have taken place in your lifestyle after independence. What would you say?

Raikas had a very comfortable life before independence. They lived in their homes during the monsoons and moved out in search of pasture and water by October. They combined a range of different activities such as cultivation and herding to make their living. But after independence their lifestyle got changed to a great extent. Now they had no grazing grounds or pastures. Many of the Raikas have switched over to different trades to earn their livelihoods.

2. Imagine that you have been asked by a famous magazine to write an article about the life and customs of the Masai in pre-colonial Africa. Write the article giving it an interesting title.

The Masai cattle herders live primarily in East Africa: 300,000 in Southern Kenya and another 150,000 in Tanzania. The title Masai derives from the word Maa. Masai means “My People’. The Masai are traditionally nomadic and pastoral people who depend on milk and meat for subsistence. In pre-colonial times Masai society was divided into two social categories-elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and their main task was to settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people who were mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids.

Questions:

1. Explain why nomadic tribes used to move from one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?

Nomadic tribes do not live in one place but move from one area to another in search of pastures for their animals and to earn their living. The advantages to the environment of this continuous movement are given below:

i) Continuous movement of the nomadic tribes allows the pastures to recover and prevent their overuse.

ii) Their movement helps in making effective use of pasture available in different areas.

iii) Their cattle help in managing the soil.

All these factors bring balance in the environment.

2. Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists.

i) Waste Land Rules:

To colonial government all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive which produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as ‘waste land’ that needed to be brought under cultivation. By expanding cultivation the colonial government would increase its revenue collection. It could at the same time produce more jute, cotton, wheat and other agricultural produce that were required in England. Hence, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country from the mid-19^th century. By these rules uncultivated lands were taken over from the pastoralists and given to select individuals. These individuals were encouraged to settle these lands.

These lands were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.

ii) Forest Act:

by the mid-nineteenth century various Forest Acts were being enacted in different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralists was allowed to access to these forests. Other forests were classified as ‘protected’. In these, some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely restricted.

These Forest Acts changed the lives of pastoralists.

They were prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. Even in the areas they were allowed entry, their movements were regulated.

iii) Criminal Tribes Acts:

The British officials had no faith in nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season. The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. They wanted the rural people to live in villages, in fixed places with rights on particular fields. Such population was easy to identify and control. Therefore, they passed the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871 under which many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes.

Once this Act come into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit.

iii) Grazing Tax:

in order to expand its revenue income grazing tax was introduced in most pastoral tracts of India in the mid-nineteenth century. Henceforth, pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. Not only this, they had to seek a permit to enter a grazing area to graze their cattle. Grazing Tax proved to be an additional burden on the pastoralists.

3. Give reasons to explain why the Masai community lost their grazing lands.

The Masai community is found in East Africa, Southern Kenya and Tanzania. This community has faced the continuous loss its grazing lands. Let’s see why this happened.

i) Before colonial times, Masai land stretched over a vast area from north Kenya to the steppes of northern Tanzania. In the late 19^th century European imperial powers scrambled for territorial possessions in Africa, slicing up the region into different colonies. In 1885, Masai land was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika. Subsequently, the best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement and the Masai were pushed into a small area in South Kenya and North Tanzania.

ii) From the late 19^th century, the British colonial government in East Africa encouraged local peasants to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasture lands were turned into cultivated fields.

iii) Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Masai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves. They could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Masai herds. The Serengeti National Park, for instance, was created over 14,760 km of Masai grazing land.

4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa? Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Masai herders.

Both India and East Africa were under the control of the British imperia tic powers. Hence, both of them were exploited in the same pattern. We can give here two examples of changes which were similar for the pastoral communities of both the countries.

i) The pastoral communities of both the places gradually lost their grazing lands because the colonial government wanted to expand cultivation. In India, the uncultivated land was seen as waste land that needed to be brought under cultivation. Hence, waste land rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. These individuals were encouraged to settle these lands. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. Similarly in East Africa the grazing lands of the Masai were gradually taken over by the British government to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded Masai pasture lands were turned into cultivated fields.

ii) Both Indian pastoralists and the Masai herders were nomadic and viewed with suspicion by the British colonial government. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. They were forced to live within the confines of special reserves.

More Questions Solved:

I. Multiple Choice Questions

Choose the correct option:

1. Nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another because of…………

a) seasonal changes               b) their mobile nature

c) their poor background        d) all of the above

2. Dhangars are an important pastoral community of which state?

a) Himachal Pradesh              b) Maharashtra

c) Jammu and Kashmir           d) Rajasthan

3. The life of pastoralists greatly changed under colonial rule. What is/are this/these change/changes?

a) Their grazing grounds shrank.        b) Their movements were regulated.

c) They had to pay increased revenue.          d) All the above.

4. When was the Criminal Tribes Act passed?

a) In 1889        b) In 1871       c) In 1878        d) In 1870

5. Why did the colonial government introduce the Grazing Tax in the mid 19^th century?

a) To expand its revenue.

b) To ban cattle herder from entering grazing tracts.

c) Both (a) and (b).

d) None of the above.

6. How many people in Africa are dependent on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood?

a) Less than 22 million            b) Over 22 million

c) Over 22 million                   d) Less than 12 million

7. What percentage of the grazing lands did Masai lose when European imperial powers divided Africa into different colonies?

a) 50%             b) 49%             c) 80%             d) 60%

8. When did European imperial powers divide Africa into different colonies?

a) In 1805        b) In 1882        c) In 1885        d) In 1815

9. Where is the Serengeti National Park located?

a) Kenya          b) Tanzania     c) Sudan          d) Zimbabwe

10. The word ‘Maasai’ is derived from the word Maa. Maa-sai which means…………

a) My people              b) Mother and People            

c) Their people            d) Tribal people

11. Which one of the following pastoral nomads is not found in the mountains?

a) Gaddi shepherds     b) Raikas         c) Gujjar Bakarwals    d) Bhotiyas

12. The settlement of Maru Raikas is known as……………

a) Dhandi        b) mandi          c) mandap       d) bugyal

13. Pushkar is a famous place in Rajasthan where…………….is held every year.

a) Elephant fair           b) cattle fair    c) buffalo fair  d) camel fair

14. The Maasai cattle herders live primarily in………………

a) East Africa  b) West Africa             c) South Africa                        d) North Africa

15. The Maasai Mara is a National Park in…………..

a) Tanzania     b) Kenya         c) Sudan          d) South Africa

16. Waste land rules were enacted by the colonial officials in order to…..

a) harass the pastoralists of India

b) uplift the condition of the Indian pastoralists

c) turn the uncultivated lands into cultivable lands

d) turn cultivable lands into forests.

II. Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1. Who are nomadic pastoralists?

Nomadic are people who do not live in one place but move with their herds of goats and sheep from one area to another to earn their living.

2. Who are the Gujjar Bakarwals?

The Gujjar Bakarwals belong to Jammu and Kashmir. They are great herders of goat and sheep.

3. What are Gujjar mandaps made of?

Gujjar madaps are made of ringal- a hill bamboo- and grass from the buggal- a vast meadow in the high mountains.

4. What are bhabars?

Bhabars are dry forested areas below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.

5. The life of pastoralists greatly changed under the colonial rule. Mention two changes.

i) Their grazing grounds shrank.

ii) Their movements were regulated.

6. What different activities were associated with Dhangars of Maharashtra?

Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders.

7. Where did the Kurumas and Kurub as live? What did they rear?

The Kurumas and Kurubas lived in Karnataka of Uttar Pradesh. They reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.

8. Name the pastoralists who lived in the plateaus of India.

Dhangars, Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas.

9. Where were Banjaras to be found in India?

Banjaras were to be found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

10. Where did the Raikas live?

The Raikas lived in the deserts of Rajasthan.

11. What did the different groups of Raikas rear?

One group of Raikas, known as the Maru or desert Raikas, herded camels and another group reared sheep and goat.

12. What was the settlement of Maru Raikas called?

The settlement of Maru Raikas was called a dhandi.

13. What are customary rights?

Customary rights are those that people are used to by custom and tradition.

14. How did the colonial officials view the uncultivated land?

The colonial officials viewed all uncultivated land as unproductive, which produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as waste land that needed to be brought under cultivation.

15. What happened after the Waste Land Rules were enacted?

The grazing lands of pastoralists were taken over and given to the select individuals to turn them into cultivated fields.

16. Which forests were declared ‘reserved’ under the various Forest Acts?

The forests which produced commercially timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘reserved’ forests.

17. Which Act did the colonial government pass in 1871? What was its main provision?

In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the criminal tribes acts. By this act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes and were ordered to live only in notified village settlements.

18. Why did the colonial government introduce the Grazing Tax in the mid-19^th century? Give two reasons.

i) To expand its revenue.

ii) To ban cattle herder from entering grazing tracts.

19. Name the pastoral communities live in Africa.

Bedounis, Berbers, Maasais, Somali, Boran and Turkana.

20. Where do the Maasai cattle herders live?

They live primarily in east Africa- in Southern Kenya and Tanzania.

21. How many people in Africa are dependent on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood?

Over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood.

22. What per cent of their grazing lands did Maasai lose when European imperial powers divided Africa into different colonies?

 They lost about 60% of their grazing lands.

23. What was the status of the Maasai pastoralists in pre-colonial times?

They had dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically.

24. What happened to the grazing lands of the Maasai pastoralists?

Their grazing lands were turned into cultivated fields. Large areas of this grazing land were also turned into game reserves.

25. In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories. Name them.

i) Elders

ii) Warriors

26. What duty was assigned to the warriors?

The warriors were responsible for the protection of their community.

27. Why were pastoralists not allowed to enter the markets in white areas?

It was because white settlers and European colonies saw pastoralists as dangerous and savage.

28. What were the major activities of the pastoral communities of Africa?

They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys. They sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool.

III. Short Answer Type Questions:

1. Give a brief account of the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh.

Or

Describe the cycle of seasonal movement of the Gaddi shepherds.

i) Like other pastoralists the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh also kept on moving from one area in search of favourable weather conditions and grazing grounds.

ii) They spent their winter in the low hills of Shivalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests.

iii) By April they moved North and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of the Gaddi shepherds moved on to higher mountain meadows.

iv) By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. Then they descended with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the Shivalik hills.

2. Name the pastoral communities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Mention their occupation.

Or

Write a brief note on the pastoral communities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

i) The pastoral communities found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh were the Gollas, the Kurumas and the Kurubas.

ii) The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.

iii) They lived near the woods; cultivated small patched of land, engaged in a variety of petty trades and took care of their herds.

iv) These pastoral communities moved to the coastal tracts in the dry season and left when the rains came.

3. Explain why nomadic people need to move from one area to another.

Or

Why do nomadic people follow a cycle of seasonal movement?

Nomadic people need to move from one area to another because of the following reasons:

i) The climate of one area does not remain favourable or suitable throughout the year. So far it is suitable for them and their cattle, they live in that area but leave it soon when it becomes unfavourable.

ii) By making movements they make the most effective use of the available pastures in different areas.

iii) Their movement also enables them to grow seasonal crops. For instance, the Dhangars of Maharashtra grow bajra, a dry crop, in the semi-arid region with low rainfall and poor soil.

4. The life of the pastoral groups was sustained by a careful consideration of a host factors. Explain these factors or what factors sustained the life of the pastoral groups in India?

i) In course of moving from one place to another the pastoral groups had to judge how long the herds could stay in a certain area and know where they could find ample water and pasture.

ii) They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that they could move through different territories.

iii) They had to set a relationship with farmers on the way, so that the herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil.

5. How did the various Forest Acts affect the lives of Indian pastoralists?

Various Forest Acts deeply affected the lives of pastoralists.

i) All their freedom was snatched. They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle.

ii) Even in the areas they were allowed to entry, their movements were regulated. They needed a permit for entry. The timing of their entry and departure was specified and the number of days they could spend in the forest was limited.

iii) Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available; the grass was succulent and the undergrowth in the forest was ample.

iv) Thus, their life was now ruled by the Forest Department permits that had been issued to them. The permit specified the periods in which they could be legally within a forest. If they overstayed they were fined.

6. What happened to the animal stock when pasture lands were turned into cultivated lands?

As pasture lands got shrunk, the existing animal stock had to feed on whatever grazing land remained. This led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. Usually nomadic pastoralists grazed their animals in one area and moved to another area. These pastoral movements allowed time for the natural restoration of vegetation growth. When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. Underfed cattle died in large numbers during scarcities and famines.

7. Describe the pastoral communities of Africa. Also mention their occupation.

i) Over half the world’s pastoral population lives in Africa. The African pastoral population includes communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Masai, Somali and Boran. Most of them now live in the semi arid grass lands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is difficult.

ii) They are engaged in different activities. They rear cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport. Others combine pastoral activity with agriculture. Still others do a variety of odd jobs to supplement their meagre and uncertain earnings from Pastoralism.

8. Describe Masai society that existed in pre-colonial times.

In pre-colonial times Masai society was divided into two social categories- elders and warriors.

i) The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes.

ii) The warriors consisted of younger people. They were mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids.

iii) Raiding was important because cattle was wealth in Masai society. It is through raids that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted.

iv) Young men came to be recognised as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. But they were subject to the authority of the elders.

9. Distinguish between the reserved forests and protected forests.

Reserved forests	Protected forests
i) Forests having commercially valuable timber, like deodar or sal were classified as Reserved forests.	i) In these forests some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely restricted.
ii) Pastoralists were not allowed to move in these forests. These were inaccessible to the pastoralists.	ii) Pastoralists were allowed to move in these forests but they had to take permission from the government.

10. Discuss why the colonial government introduced the Waste Land Rules in India. How did the Waste Land Rules change the life of pastoralists?

i) The colonial state wanted to transform all grazing lands into cultivated farms because the colonial government considered any uncultivated land as unproductive.

ii) If this land could be transformed into cultivated farmland, it would result in an increase in land revenue and production of crops such as jute, cotton and wheat.

iii) All grazing lands were considered as waste lands by the colonial rulers as they brought no revenue to them.

iv) From the mid 19^th century Waste Land Rules we enacted in various parts of the country.

11. How did the Waste Land Rules change the life of the pastoralists?

The Waste Land Rule completely changed the life of the pastoralists.

i) By these Rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals.

ii) These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands. Some of them were made headmen of villages in the newly cleared areas. Actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists.

iii) Expansion of cultivation mutably meant the decline of pasture and a problem for pastoralists.

12. Where were the Raikas found? Write briefly about their way of living.

The Raikas were found in the deserts of Rajasthan. The rainfall in the region was poor and uncertain. Hence, the Raikas combined cultivation with Pastoralism. During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry, they moved out in search of other pasture and water and returned again during the next monsoon.

One group of Raikas known as the Maru (desert) Raikas, herded camels and another group reared sheep and goats.

13. What was the impact of frequent droughts on the pasture lands of the Masai community?

Drought affects the life of pastoralists everywhere. When rains fail and pastures are dry, cattle are likely to starve unless they can be moved to areas where forage is available. But in the colonial administration, the Masai were forced to live within the confined areas. They could not move beyond the boundaries without special permits. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi arid tracts prone to droughts. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large numbers of Masai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought. In just two years of severe drought, 1933 and 1934 over half the cattle in the Masai reserve died.

As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to a steady decline of the animal stock of the pastoralists.

14. What kind of life did the chiefs appointed by the colonial government lead?

The colonial government appointed chiefs of different sub groups of Masai who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe.

These chiefs often accumulated wealth overtime. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods and land. They lent money to poor neighbours who needed cash to pay taxes. Many of the chiefs began living in towns and started trade. They managed to survive the devastations of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non pastoral income and could buy animals when their stock was depleted.

15. What restrictions were imposed by the colonial rule on the African pastoralists?

The following restrictions were imposed by the colonial rule on the African pastoralists:

i) Colonial government began imposing various restrictions on their mobility.

ii) Pastoral groups were also forced to live within the confines of special reserves.

iii) They could not move beyond the boundaries without special permits.

iv) They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi arid tract which were prone to frequent droughts.

v) The pasture lands were turned into cultivable fields and game reserves. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves.

vi) The natives were also issued passes, without showing it they were not allowed to enter the restricted areas.

IV. Long Answer Type Questions:

1. How did the Indian pastoralists cope with the change that was brought about by the British colonial officials?

Under colonial rule the life of the Indian pastoralists changed dramatically. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated and the revenue they had to pay increased. However, they coped with these changes bravely and patiently.

i) Some pastoralists reduced the number of cattle in their herds, since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers.

ii) Others discovered new pastures when movement to old grazing grounds became difficult. For instance, the new political boundaries between India and Pakistan after 1947 stopped the movement of the Raikas. So, they had to find new places to go. In recent years, they have been migrating to Haryana where sheep can graze on agricultural fields after the harvests are cut.

iii) Some pastoralists who were rich gave up their nomadic life. They bought land and settled down.

iv) Some became settled peasants cultivating land. Others took to more extensive trading.

v) Many poor pastoralists borrowed money from moneylenders to survive. At times they lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working on fields or in small towns.

2. Why were chiefs appointed by the British? How was their life different from the poor pastoralists?

The British appointed chiefs of different sub groups of Masai, who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe (Masai).

These chiefs were not honest at all. They often accumulated wealth over time. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods and land. Many of them began living in towns and became involved in trade. Their wives and children stayed back in the villages to look after the animals. These chiefs managed to survive the devastations of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non pastoral income and could buy animals when their stock was depleted.

But the life of the poor pastoralists was full of miseries. They depended only on their livestock. Most often they did not have the resources to cope with bad times. In times of war and famine, they lost nearly everything. They had to go looking for work in the towns. Some worked as charcoal burners, others did odd jobs. The lucky could get more regular work in road or building construction. Thus, there was a wide gap between the chief and the pastoralists.

3. Write briefly about the pastoral nomads found in different parts of India.

The pastoral nomads found in different parts of India such as in the mountains, on plateaus, plains and deserts.

In the mountains:

·         The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir were great herders of goat and sheep. They moved annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In summer, the Gujjar herders went up to the high meadows- the bugyals, and in winter they came down to the dry forests of the Bhabar.

·         The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh had a similar cycle of seasonal movement. They too spent their winter in the low hills of Shivalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April, they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and spiti.

When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher mountain meadows. By September, they began their return movement.

On the Plateaus:

·         Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. Most of them were shepherds, blanket weavers and others are buffalo herders. They grew kharif and rabi crops like bajra, rice.

·         The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas were pastoral communities that lived in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. They cultivated small patches of land and got engaged in a variety of pretty trades also.

On the Plains:

·         Banjaras were yet another well known group of graziers. They were to be found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. They moved over long distances in search of good pastureland for their cattle. Practice of selling plough cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder was common among them.

In Deserts:

·         Raikas lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. They received meagre and uncertain rainfall in this region. During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their home villages and by October when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted they moved out in search of other pasture and water and returned again during the next monsoon. One group of Raikas- known as the Maru (desert) Raikas- herded cattle and the other group reared sheep and goat.

4. Write a brief note on the Pastoralism in Africa.

Over half the world’s pastoral population lives in Africa. Even today, over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Masai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them now live in semi arid grass lands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is not possible. They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys. They sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport. Others combine pastoral activity with agriculture to earn more. Still others do a variety of odd jobs so to supplement their poor and uncertain earnings from Pastoralism.

The lives of African pastoralists changed a lot over the colonial and post colonial period. From the late 19^th century, the British colonial government in east Africa began to expand land for cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. These brought a number of problems for the pastoralists. Their life became tough.