Resources and
Development
Types
of Resources
The things available in our environment that
can be used to satisfy our needs are called resources.
Things available in our environment become resources only when human beings find a way to transform them into a useful form. For a thing to become a resource:
Things available in our environment become resources only when human beings find a way to transform them into a useful form. For a thing to become a resource:
Suitable technology must exist to transform it
into some useful form.
Its use must be financially viable and
culturally acceptable.
Resources can be classified based on their origin, exhaustibility, ownership and status of development. Resources can be living or non-living. All resources that come from living things, like forests, land and sea animals, insects and human beings, are called biotic resources.
Resources in the form of non-living things, like rocks, minerals and metals, are called abiotic resources. Resources can also be classified based on whether they can be regenerated or lost forever once used. Resources like solar and wind energy, reversible chemical reactions and physical power, which can be regenerated once used, are called renewable resources.
Fossil fuels like coal, natural oil and gas cannot be reproduced once used are examples of non-renewable resources. Resources like private houses, shops, farms and plantations are owned by individual persons, and are called individual resources. Resources like public parks, places of worship, schools and hospitals which are open to all members of a community are examples of community-owned resources.
All resources, biotic or abiotic, individual or community-owned, ultimately belong to the country and are called national resources. Resources found on land and the vast stretches of oceans, which are not owned by any particular nation, are called international resources, and are managed by institutions related to the United Nations.
Resources like mines, where minerals have already been discovered and production is on to utilise their full capacity, are called developed resources.
Resources that are known to exist, but are not
being fully utilised, are called potential resources. Stock is a type of
resource that cannot be used due to the unavailability of suitable technology,
but may be used in the future. Resources that can be used today, but are
preserved to meet future requirements, are called reserves.
Development
and Planning of Resources
Sustainable development means using resources
wisely without damaging the environment and keeping in mind the need of future
generations. Indiscriminate use of resources leads to:
A rapid depletion of resources
An economic divide in the society,
Environmental and ecological problems like
pollution, land degradation, global warming and ozone layer depletion.
The first Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in June 1992 where leaders from over 100 countries signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity, approved the global forest principles and adopted Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 aims to prevent environmental damage and fight poverty and diseases through global cooperation. It also aims to encourage local governments to form their own Agenda 21 based on local issues.
The resources in a country are not distributed uniformly across all its regions. The mere presence of resources is not enough for the development of a region.
Resource planning involves:
The identification and inventory of resources
Planning with the appropriate technology,
skilled human resources, setting up of suitable institutions for the
implementation of resource development plans, and equitable distribution of available
resources for sustained economic development
Matching these with national development plans
The different activities involved in resource planning are:
Identifying and estimating the resources
available by surveying and mapping
Evolving technology, skilled personnel and
institutions to implement resource development plans
Continuously monitoring and guiding resource
development plans to match the overall national development goals.
The availability of resources is limited. Irresponsible and over-use of resources can lead to several social, economic and environmental problems. We must plan for the future and start conserving our resources at all levels.
Land
Resources
India is the 7th largest
country in the world with a geographical area of about 3.28 million square
kilometres.
Land in India can be divided into three main relief features. Around 30% of our land is occupied by mountains, 43% is plain and 27% is in the form of plateau. Depending on their use, our land resources can be classified as forests, net sown area or total area under cultivation, fallow lands, other uncultivated land and land not available for cultivation.
Fallow land can be further divided into current fallow, which is land not cultivated for one or less than one year, and other than current-fallow, which is land that has remained uncultivated for one to five years. Uncultivated land other than fallow land is divided into permanent pastures, land under miscellaneous tree crops and land left uncultivated for more than five years.
Land not available for cultivation is either barren wasteland or land used for non-agricultural purposes.
The area under forests is way below the required 33% as planned in the National Forest Policy formulated in 1952. Permanent pastures and grazing grounds decreased during the period. Continuous and indiscriminate use of land resources results in land degradation. Deforestation removes the green cover required to protect soil erosion.
Overgrazing by cattle has converted permanent pastures into barren land, leading to land degradation. Indiscriminate deforestation and excavation done as part of mining activity and quarrying also causes land degradation.
Over-irrigation of cultivated land in some parts of India leads to water logging. This increases the saline and alkaline levels in the soil, leading to land degradation. Disposal of solid and liquid waste by industries on surrounding land or water bodies has also become a major cause of land degradation and water pollution. Industrial activities like grinding of limestone, calcite and soapstone, which release dust, retards water infiltration into the soil.
Some steps for land conservation are:
Land in India can be divided into three main relief features. Around 30% of our land is occupied by mountains, 43% is plain and 27% is in the form of plateau. Depending on their use, our land resources can be classified as forests, net sown area or total area under cultivation, fallow lands, other uncultivated land and land not available for cultivation.
Fallow land can be further divided into current fallow, which is land not cultivated for one or less than one year, and other than current-fallow, which is land that has remained uncultivated for one to five years. Uncultivated land other than fallow land is divided into permanent pastures, land under miscellaneous tree crops and land left uncultivated for more than five years.
Land not available for cultivation is either barren wasteland or land used for non-agricultural purposes.
The area under forests is way below the required 33% as planned in the National Forest Policy formulated in 1952. Permanent pastures and grazing grounds decreased during the period. Continuous and indiscriminate use of land resources results in land degradation. Deforestation removes the green cover required to protect soil erosion.
Overgrazing by cattle has converted permanent pastures into barren land, leading to land degradation. Indiscriminate deforestation and excavation done as part of mining activity and quarrying also causes land degradation.
Over-irrigation of cultivated land in some parts of India leads to water logging. This increases the saline and alkaline levels in the soil, leading to land degradation. Disposal of solid and liquid waste by industries on surrounding land or water bodies has also become a major cause of land degradation and water pollution. Industrial activities like grinding of limestone, calcite and soapstone, which release dust, retards water infiltration into the soil.
Some steps for land conservation are:
Afforestation,
Controlled grazing and mining activity,
Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny
bushes,
Proper disposal of industrial effluents after
treatment and
Continuous monitoring of soil conditions
Soil As a Resource
Soil is formed over millions of years by
weathering of rocks and minerals and also by natural agents like variation in
temperature, climate, wind, glaciers and running water. The important
factors that influence soil formation are Relief, Parent rock, Vegetation and
other life forms and Time.
Soil is a natural, abiotic, renewable resource containing inorganic and organic matter, like humus. Soil is an essential resource that supports a majority of plant and animal life on the Earth. Based on their physical and chemical properties, age, texture, and colour, soils in India can be classified as: alluvial, black soil, red and yellow soil, laterite, arid and forest soil.
The northern plains of India are made of fertile alluvial soils, extending to Gujarat and Rajasthan, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river systems. Alluvial soils are also found in the eastern coastal plains and deltas of the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
Alluvial soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. The new alluvial soils called Khadar found in the Gangetic plains have small particles and a fine texture. The old alluvial soils called Bangar found near the river valleys are coarser and contain more pieces of rocks called Kanker. The fertile alluvial soils are rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime and are ideal for growing sugarcane, wheat, rice, pulses and cereal crops.
Black soil (also called regur) is found in the Deccan plateau spread over Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Black soil is rich in calcium carbonate, potash, magnesium, lime and good water retention properties. It is ideally suited for the cultivation of cotton.
Red and yellow soils are found in southern and eastern parts of Deccan plateau, southern Gangetic plains, along the Western Ghats and some parts of Orissa and Chhattisgarh. The high iron content makes this type of soil good for cultivating various types of grams, groundnuts and castor seeds. Laterite soils are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Orissa and Assam. Laterite soil is good for cultivation of tea, coffee and cashewnuts.
Arid soil is found in western Rajasthan and parts of Kutch region in Gujarat that receive very little rainfall. Arid soil is low in moisture and organic content and has high salt content. Arid soil is being used for cultivation of bajra and wheat crops in some places of western Rajasthan where irrigation facility is available.
Forest soils are found in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh. Wheat, rice, sugarcane, and oil seeds are cultivated in forest soils of many parts in Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh.
Soil is a natural, abiotic, renewable resource containing inorganic and organic matter, like humus. Soil is an essential resource that supports a majority of plant and animal life on the Earth. Based on their physical and chemical properties, age, texture, and colour, soils in India can be classified as: alluvial, black soil, red and yellow soil, laterite, arid and forest soil.
The northern plains of India are made of fertile alluvial soils, extending to Gujarat and Rajasthan, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river systems. Alluvial soils are also found in the eastern coastal plains and deltas of the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
Alluvial soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. The new alluvial soils called Khadar found in the Gangetic plains have small particles and a fine texture. The old alluvial soils called Bangar found near the river valleys are coarser and contain more pieces of rocks called Kanker. The fertile alluvial soils are rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime and are ideal for growing sugarcane, wheat, rice, pulses and cereal crops.
Black soil (also called regur) is found in the Deccan plateau spread over Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Black soil is rich in calcium carbonate, potash, magnesium, lime and good water retention properties. It is ideally suited for the cultivation of cotton.
Red and yellow soils are found in southern and eastern parts of Deccan plateau, southern Gangetic plains, along the Western Ghats and some parts of Orissa and Chhattisgarh. The high iron content makes this type of soil good for cultivating various types of grams, groundnuts and castor seeds. Laterite soils are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Orissa and Assam. Laterite soil is good for cultivation of tea, coffee and cashewnuts.
Arid soil is found in western Rajasthan and parts of Kutch region in Gujarat that receive very little rainfall. Arid soil is low in moisture and organic content and has high salt content. Arid soil is being used for cultivation of bajra and wheat crops in some places of western Rajasthan where irrigation facility is available.
Forest soils are found in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh. Wheat, rice, sugarcane, and oil seeds are cultivated in forest soils of many parts in Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh.
Soil
Erosion and Conservation
Soil is an essential natural resource that
supports a majority of plant and animal life on the earth. It is a renewable
resource.
The loss of soil cover due to natural agents like wind and running water is called soil erosion. The roots of plants and trees keep the soil moist and hold the soil particles together. Humans destroy vegetation cover by deforestation, overgrazing, construction and mining activities.
Without vegetation cover, soil becomes dry and loose, and gets easily eroded. Defective farming methods, like ploughing up and down a slope, increase the speed of water flowing down the slope increase the rate of soil erosion.
Running water carves deep channels through clayey soils, called gully erosion, which converts the land into bad-land making it unsuitable for cultivation.
When flowing water washes away the entire sheet of top soil in a region, it is called sheet erosion. Wind erosion occurs generally in areas of little or no vegetation. It happens in places that receive scanty rainfall.
The prevention of soil erosion is called soil conservation and the ways can be:
The loss of soil cover due to natural agents like wind and running water is called soil erosion. The roots of plants and trees keep the soil moist and hold the soil particles together. Humans destroy vegetation cover by deforestation, overgrazing, construction and mining activities.
Without vegetation cover, soil becomes dry and loose, and gets easily eroded. Defective farming methods, like ploughing up and down a slope, increase the speed of water flowing down the slope increase the rate of soil erosion.
Running water carves deep channels through clayey soils, called gully erosion, which converts the land into bad-land making it unsuitable for cultivation.
When flowing water washes away the entire sheet of top soil in a region, it is called sheet erosion. Wind erosion occurs generally in areas of little or no vegetation. It happens in places that receive scanty rainfall.
The prevention of soil erosion is called soil conservation and the ways can be:
Terrace farming is one way to do so and
involves cutting terraces along a slope. These terraces reduce the speed of
water flowing down the slope and help in soil conservation.
Contour ploughing is also beneficial in
reducing the flow of water down the slope and involves ploughing at right
angles to the natural slope of land.
Effective farming techniques further help in
soil erosion. In plain areas, strip cropping can be used for soil conservation
where strips of grass are allowed to stand between crops in large fields. These
strips of grass reduce the force of wind and thus prevent soil erosion.
Planting rows of trees along farmland also help break the force of wind and help in soil conservation. Shelter belts of trees, when planted along sand dunes, help stabilise them and prevent the desert from extending into land available for cultivation.
Forest and Wildlife Resources
Flora
and Fauna in India
We share Earth with millions of species of
plants and animals. Plants, trees, animals and microorganisms maintain
the quality of our planet’s air, water and soil, which is essential for the
survival of humans.
Forests are the primary producers, on which all the species of animals depend directly or indirectly. The variety of living things found in a region, country or the entire earth is called its biological diversity or biodiversity.
All the species of plants and trees found in a region are collectively called the flora of the region. The species of animals found in a region are collectively called the fauna of the region. India is home to around 1.6 million or nearly 8% of all the species of flora and fauna found in the world. India is home to around 47000 species of flora and to over 81000 species of fauna. Over-exploitation and insensitivity towards our environment has led to large-scale degradation of biodiversity in India.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, or IUCN, has classified the species of flora and fauna as normal, extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare or endemic.
Plants and animals whose population is sufficient for the survival of their species are called normal species. A species that cannot be found after prolonged search in its area of habitation is called an extinct species.
A species that is facing the danger of extinction, if the factors responsible for its decline are not checked is called an endangered species. A species that is likely to become endangered due to decreasing population unless conserved is called vulnerable species.
A species with a small population that is likely to become vulnerable or endangered without conservation efforts is called a rare species. A species found only in a particular region due to isolation by natural or geographic barriers is called an endemic species.
Forests are the primary producers, on which all the species of animals depend directly or indirectly. The variety of living things found in a region, country or the entire earth is called its biological diversity or biodiversity.
All the species of plants and trees found in a region are collectively called the flora of the region. The species of animals found in a region are collectively called the fauna of the region. India is home to around 1.6 million or nearly 8% of all the species of flora and fauna found in the world. India is home to around 47000 species of flora and to over 81000 species of fauna. Over-exploitation and insensitivity towards our environment has led to large-scale degradation of biodiversity in India.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, or IUCN, has classified the species of flora and fauna as normal, extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare or endemic.
Plants and animals whose population is sufficient for the survival of their species are called normal species. A species that cannot be found after prolonged search in its area of habitation is called an extinct species.
A species that is facing the danger of extinction, if the factors responsible for its decline are not checked is called an endangered species. A species that is likely to become endangered due to decreasing population unless conserved is called vulnerable species.
A species with a small population that is likely to become vulnerable or endangered without conservation efforts is called a rare species. A species found only in a particular region due to isolation by natural or geographic barriers is called an endemic species.
Factors
Responsible for the Depletion of Flora and Fauna
The Asiatic Cheetah became extinct in India in
1952. The Himalayan Yew, a medicinal plant found in Himachal Pradesh and
Arunachal Pradesh. The bark, needles and roots of this plant yield a substance
used to treat several types of cancer. Today, over exploitation has endangered
the species.
The main reason for the depletion of fauna is excessive hunting and poaching. Forests and wetlands are natural habitats of animals and the destruction of these has resulted in the depletion of our wildlife. Over-exploitation of forests has resulted in the depletion of flora. Deforestation is one of the main causes of the depletion of flora. In colonial India vast stretches of natural forests were destroyed for the expansion of railways, agriculture, commercial farming and mining.
The colonial practice continued even after independence. Large infrastructure projects, like multi-purpose dams, have also resulted in massive deforestation. Mining also contributes to deforestation. Poor cultivation methods like slash and burn agriculture, or Jhuming, practised by tribal people in north-eastern and central India, have also led to deforestation.
Overgrazing by cattle herds also leads to large-scale destruction of pastures and natural forests. Enrichment plantation is the practice of replacing different species of trees in an area by a single commercially valuable species. Teak plantations have damaged the natural forests in south India, while Chir Pine plantations in Himalayas have greatly reduced the natural oak and rhododendron forests. Factors like environmental pollution and forest fires lead to a depletion of both our flora and fauna. The environmental factors that lead to a decline in biodiversity are caused by inequitable consumption of resources and inequitable responsibility borne for the well-being of the environment.
Hunting and poaching, habitat destruction, deforestation, over-exploitation, enrichment plantations, environmental pollution and forest fires are factors responsible for the decrease in India’s biodiversity.
However, the responsibility for the protection and conservation of the environment is not shared by people in proportion with the resources that they consume. The depletion of flora and fauna has considerable impact on society, who are directly dependent on forests for resources and livelihood.
Women have to walk long distances to collect food and firewood which leads to neglect of their children and household. Natural calamities like droughts and floods are also a result of environmental degradation and the hardest hit by these are the poorest. The flora and fauna of India are under severe threat, and require immediate measures of conservation.
The main reason for the depletion of fauna is excessive hunting and poaching. Forests and wetlands are natural habitats of animals and the destruction of these has resulted in the depletion of our wildlife. Over-exploitation of forests has resulted in the depletion of flora. Deforestation is one of the main causes of the depletion of flora. In colonial India vast stretches of natural forests were destroyed for the expansion of railways, agriculture, commercial farming and mining.
The colonial practice continued even after independence. Large infrastructure projects, like multi-purpose dams, have also resulted in massive deforestation. Mining also contributes to deforestation. Poor cultivation methods like slash and burn agriculture, or Jhuming, practised by tribal people in north-eastern and central India, have also led to deforestation.
Overgrazing by cattle herds also leads to large-scale destruction of pastures and natural forests. Enrichment plantation is the practice of replacing different species of trees in an area by a single commercially valuable species. Teak plantations have damaged the natural forests in south India, while Chir Pine plantations in Himalayas have greatly reduced the natural oak and rhododendron forests. Factors like environmental pollution and forest fires lead to a depletion of both our flora and fauna. The environmental factors that lead to a decline in biodiversity are caused by inequitable consumption of resources and inequitable responsibility borne for the well-being of the environment.
Hunting and poaching, habitat destruction, deforestation, over-exploitation, enrichment plantations, environmental pollution and forest fires are factors responsible for the decrease in India’s biodiversity.
However, the responsibility for the protection and conservation of the environment is not shared by people in proportion with the resources that they consume. The depletion of flora and fauna has considerable impact on society, who are directly dependent on forests for resources and livelihood.
Women have to walk long distances to collect food and firewood which leads to neglect of their children and household. Natural calamities like droughts and floods are also a result of environmental degradation and the hardest hit by these are the poorest. The flora and fauna of India are under severe threat, and require immediate measures of conservation.
Conservation
of Forests and Wildlife in India
Conservation of plants and animals ensures the
quality of air, water and soil on which we depend for our survival.
Conservation of plants species is essential to maintain their genetic diversity
which is extremely beneficial for our agricultural produce.
Conservation of animal species is equally important for their breeding and maintenance of food chains.
Conservation efforts in India resulted in Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
The salient features of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972:
Conservation of animal species is equally important for their breeding and maintenance of food chains.
Conservation efforts in India resulted in Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
The salient features of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972:
Making provisions for habitat protection,
Publishing a list of protected species,
Imposing legal restrictions on hunting,
poaching and trade in wildlife, and
Setting up of national parks and sanctuaries
in different parts of India by giving legal protection to the habitat.
Announcing conservation projects for some
specific endangered animals
Conservation efforts in India are expanding their scope to include even insects and plants in the list of protected species along with large animals.
Hundreds of species of butterflies, moths, beetles and one species of dragonfly were included in the list of protected species through the Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986. Six species of plants also found their way into this list in 1991.
One conservation project in India’s wildlife conservation effort is dedicated to the Royal Bengal Tiger called Project Tiger. India and Nepal are home to about two-thirds of the tiger population in the world.
The tiger population in India has decreased from 55,000 in 1900 to 1,827 in 1973. The main reason for such drastic decline in the tiger population is poaching for lucrative trade in tiger skin, claws and bones, and other body parts used in traditional medicines.
The results of Project Tiger have been mixed. There are 29 tiger reserves in India. Some of the main tiger reserves are:
The Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand,
The Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,
The Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya
Pradesh,
The Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan,
The Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and
The Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala.
Types and Distribution of Forests and Wildlife
Most of the forest and wildlife resources are
owned by the Government of India, and managed through several departments like
the Forest Department. Forests are divided into three types: Reserved
Forests, Protected Forests and Unclassed Forests.
Over 50% of the forests in India have been declared reserved forests. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra have a large percentage of their forests classified as reserved forests.
Around one-third of the forests in India are classified as protected forests. Most parts of the forests in Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan are classified as protected forests. Reserved and protected forests are together called permanent forest estates. Madhya Pradesh has the largest share of permanent forests in India, with almost 75% of its forests classified as permanent forests.
All the forests and wastelands other than the reserved and protected forests are considered unclassed forests. Most of the forests in the north-eastern states of India and Gujarat are unclassed forests. Religious faith has led to the conservation of certain specific types of trees in different parts of India. Parts of forests or complete forests are protected by communities since they are considered to be abodes of gods and goddesses. Such protected forest areas are called sacred groves.
Several animals are also considered sacred, and, therefore, not harmed. Another reason for community participation in conservation efforts is the concern for their own survival. Many tribal communities are actively helping government officials in their conservation efforts. Local villagers cited the Wildlife Protection Act to fight against the ongoing mining activity inside the Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan.
In Alwar district of Rajasthan, people from 5 villages have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav Sanctuary with a set of regulations that forbid hunting and encroachments. The Chipko Movement started in 1970 in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, where people, including women and children, hugged trees to prevent them from being cut. Farmers and citizen groups like Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri, Uttarakhand and Navdanya are also aiming to conserve the environment by reviving traditional methods of farming.
Orissa made a pioneering effort in this direction by launching the Joint Forest Management or JFM program in 1988. Under the Joint Forest Management program, local village communities participate in conservation efforts on degraded forestland. In return, the communities get the benefits of using the forest produce and a share in the timber harvested on the protected forest land.
Over 50% of the forests in India have been declared reserved forests. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra have a large percentage of their forests classified as reserved forests.
Around one-third of the forests in India are classified as protected forests. Most parts of the forests in Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan are classified as protected forests. Reserved and protected forests are together called permanent forest estates. Madhya Pradesh has the largest share of permanent forests in India, with almost 75% of its forests classified as permanent forests.
All the forests and wastelands other than the reserved and protected forests are considered unclassed forests. Most of the forests in the north-eastern states of India and Gujarat are unclassed forests. Religious faith has led to the conservation of certain specific types of trees in different parts of India. Parts of forests or complete forests are protected by communities since they are considered to be abodes of gods and goddesses. Such protected forest areas are called sacred groves.
Several animals are also considered sacred, and, therefore, not harmed. Another reason for community participation in conservation efforts is the concern for their own survival. Many tribal communities are actively helping government officials in their conservation efforts. Local villagers cited the Wildlife Protection Act to fight against the ongoing mining activity inside the Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan.
In Alwar district of Rajasthan, people from 5 villages have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav Sanctuary with a set of regulations that forbid hunting and encroachments. The Chipko Movement started in 1970 in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, where people, including women and children, hugged trees to prevent them from being cut. Farmers and citizen groups like Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri, Uttarakhand and Navdanya are also aiming to conserve the environment by reviving traditional methods of farming.
Orissa made a pioneering effort in this direction by launching the Joint Forest Management or JFM program in 1988. Under the Joint Forest Management program, local village communities participate in conservation efforts on degraded forestland. In return, the communities get the benefits of using the forest produce and a share in the timber harvested on the protected forest land.
Water Resources
Water
Sources
Water is a renewable resource. Water is
essential for domestic use, cultivation and also for industries. The majority
of human uses require fresh water.
97 % of the water on the earth is salt water only 2.5 of the total water on the earth is exists as fresh water. Around 70 % of fresh water is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets.
Only 30 % of water is stored as ground water. The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation. India receives nearly 4% of the global precipitation.
Around 0.3 % of the total fresh water exists in rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are natural sources of water.
India has ample water resources in certain regions still India is in 133rd position in water availability per person per year.
Water scarcity is posing an alarming threat in most parts of the world, including India.
97 % of the water on the earth is salt water only 2.5 of the total water on the earth is exists as fresh water. Around 70 % of fresh water is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets.
Only 30 % of water is stored as ground water. The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation. India receives nearly 4% of the global precipitation.
Around 0.3 % of the total fresh water exists in rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are natural sources of water.
India has ample water resources in certain regions still India is in 133rd position in water availability per person per year.
Water scarcity is posing an alarming threat in most parts of the world, including India.
Water
Scarcity
Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient
available water resources to meet the demands of water usage
within a region.
The increase in water demand is a contribution of various factors including growing population, increased agricultural needs, industrial use and for electricity production.
Large amounts of industrial pollutants dumped in the rivers are responsible for destroying and leading to water shortage of the whole planet.
Pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture also get mixed with water bodies and pollute them.
Overuse of tube wells for irrigation and use of bore wells for domestic use also leads to over exploitation of underground water , decreasing the level water table resulting in water scarcity.
The problem of water waste is severe in countries where people are using the traditional inefficient irrigation methods for agricultural land.
Government should invest to build more dams to fulfil the water demands and reduce the water shortage
The increase in water demand is a contribution of various factors including growing population, increased agricultural needs, industrial use and for electricity production.
Large amounts of industrial pollutants dumped in the rivers are responsible for destroying and leading to water shortage of the whole planet.
Pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture also get mixed with water bodies and pollute them.
Overuse of tube wells for irrigation and use of bore wells for domestic use also leads to over exploitation of underground water , decreasing the level water table resulting in water scarcity.
The problem of water waste is severe in countries where people are using the traditional inefficient irrigation methods for agricultural land.
Government should invest to build more dams to fulfil the water demands and reduce the water shortage
Multi-purpose
River Projects
People have always felt the need to store
river water in the rainy season for use in the dry season. People in ancient
India built many hydraulic structures like dams, artificial lakes, tanks and
canals to store and divert water for irrigation.
A dam is a structure that forms a barrier across a river to regulate the flow of water. Dams can be classified into several types based on their height and material used for construction. We have built many large dams across major rivers in India.
The primary purpose of dams has always been to provide water for irrigation. Modern dams are also used to generate electricity and to supply water to industries and households. Dams are used to control flooding in flood-prone areas by regulating the flow of water downstream.
The reservoirs created behind several dams are used for breeding fish. Dams can also be used to divert water into existing smaller streams to promote inland navigation. Several dams are popular tourist attractions and recreation spots. Dams are called multi-purpose river projects due to the many ways that they offer to manage our water resources. A dam creates an enormous reservoir of water that submerges vast stretches of the surrounding area.
Major benefits of large multi-purpose projects go to big landowners and industrialists, while the local, poor, landless people have little to gain. Better irrigation facilities attract farmers to grow more water-intensive commercial crops, leading to over-irrigation and increase in soil salinity. Construction of dams cause ecological problems as well like these block the migration of fish, upsetting the ecological balance and putting several aquatic species in danger.
The sudden release of large quantities of water from dams results in large-scale flooding in plain areas. Large dams obstruct the free flow of river water, resulting in disputes between different states over water sharing, and also over the sharing of costs and benefits of the project. Environmentalists associate large dams with causing of earthquakes, spread of water-borne diseases and degradation of soil. Most of the multi-purpose river projects in India so far have not met their desired objectives.
A dam is a structure that forms a barrier across a river to regulate the flow of water. Dams can be classified into several types based on their height and material used for construction. We have built many large dams across major rivers in India.
The primary purpose of dams has always been to provide water for irrigation. Modern dams are also used to generate electricity and to supply water to industries and households. Dams are used to control flooding in flood-prone areas by regulating the flow of water downstream.
The reservoirs created behind several dams are used for breeding fish. Dams can also be used to divert water into existing smaller streams to promote inland navigation. Several dams are popular tourist attractions and recreation spots. Dams are called multi-purpose river projects due to the many ways that they offer to manage our water resources. A dam creates an enormous reservoir of water that submerges vast stretches of the surrounding area.
Major benefits of large multi-purpose projects go to big landowners and industrialists, while the local, poor, landless people have little to gain. Better irrigation facilities attract farmers to grow more water-intensive commercial crops, leading to over-irrigation and increase in soil salinity. Construction of dams cause ecological problems as well like these block the migration of fish, upsetting the ecological balance and putting several aquatic species in danger.
The sudden release of large quantities of water from dams results in large-scale flooding in plain areas. Large dams obstruct the free flow of river water, resulting in disputes between different states over water sharing, and also over the sharing of costs and benefits of the project. Environmentalists associate large dams with causing of earthquakes, spread of water-borne diseases and degradation of soil. Most of the multi-purpose river projects in India so far have not met their desired objectives.
Rainwater
Harvesting
Rain water feeds our rivers and seeps into the
ground to recharge our underground water resources. Rainwater is one of the
purest forms of water available in nature but is available to us only for a few
months in a year.
The process of collecting rain water during the wet season, to meet our fresh water requirements in the dry season, is called rainwater harvesting. In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu rain water is harvested using diversion channels called kuls or guls. Water flowing through the kuls is collected in reservoir tanks in the villages and used for irrigation as and when required.
Farmers in Bengal traditionally used inundation channels cut through river embankments at times of floods to irrigate their fields. In some areas of Rajasthan, earthen embankments, called khadin, are built around farms to collect rain water during the rainy season. This saturates the soil for cultivation. In the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, earthen check dams, called johads, are used to collect rainwater that percolates into the ground, raising the level of groundwater.
One of the most widely used methods of collecting rain water is rooftop rainwater harvesting. In a rooftop rainwater harvesting system, rain water falling on the roof is collected and then filtered before being stored in tanks for immediate use. Excess water is diverted to wells to recharge groundwater.
In many parts of Rajasthan, rain water collected through rooftop harvesting is collected in large underground reservoirs, called tankas. Almost all households in Shillong in Meghalaya use rooftop rainwater harvesting to meet almost 20% of their total requirement of water.
Each of the 200 households in Gendathur, Karnataka, that adopted rooftop rainwater harvesting can collect 50,000 litres of rain water every year for its use. In bamboo drip irrigation, bamboos are split to make shallow channels. A complex network of such bamboo channels is used to divert and carry water from rain-fed springs to the farms. Channel sections in the farm allow the water to drip near the roots of the plants.
The process of collecting rain water during the wet season, to meet our fresh water requirements in the dry season, is called rainwater harvesting. In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu rain water is harvested using diversion channels called kuls or guls. Water flowing through the kuls is collected in reservoir tanks in the villages and used for irrigation as and when required.
Farmers in Bengal traditionally used inundation channels cut through river embankments at times of floods to irrigate their fields. In some areas of Rajasthan, earthen embankments, called khadin, are built around farms to collect rain water during the rainy season. This saturates the soil for cultivation. In the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, earthen check dams, called johads, are used to collect rainwater that percolates into the ground, raising the level of groundwater.
One of the most widely used methods of collecting rain water is rooftop rainwater harvesting. In a rooftop rainwater harvesting system, rain water falling on the roof is collected and then filtered before being stored in tanks for immediate use. Excess water is diverted to wells to recharge groundwater.
In many parts of Rajasthan, rain water collected through rooftop harvesting is collected in large underground reservoirs, called tankas. Almost all households in Shillong in Meghalaya use rooftop rainwater harvesting to meet almost 20% of their total requirement of water.
Each of the 200 households in Gendathur, Karnataka, that adopted rooftop rainwater harvesting can collect 50,000 litres of rain water every year for its use. In bamboo drip irrigation, bamboos are split to make shallow channels. A complex network of such bamboo channels is used to divert and carry water from rain-fed springs to the farms. Channel sections in the farm allow the water to drip near the roots of the plants.
Agriculture
Types
of Farming
Shifting cultivation allows the soil to regain
its fertility naturally but gives very poor yield to farmers and leads to
large-scale destruction of forests. Crops like corn, rice and millets are grown
in this type of farming.
Raw material from agriculture also supports a number of industries like cotton textiles, food processing and handicrafts.
Primitive subsistence farming:
Raw material from agriculture also supports a number of industries like cotton textiles, food processing and handicrafts.
Primitive subsistence farming:
Involves cultivating food crops in small
fields essentially to sustain the farmer’s family.
Depends entirely on local soil and environment
conditions and monsoons.
Involves hard manual labour.
Is slash-and-burn agriculture.
Allows the soil to regain its fertility
naturally.
Gives very poor yield and leads to large-scale
destruction of forests
Besides India, slash-and-burn or shifting
cultivation is practised in many parts of the world and known by different
names.
In India, the most popular name for such shifting cultivation is Jhumming, in many of our north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland.
Another system of cultivation practised in India is called intensive subsistence farming. This system is practised in densely populated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh. The main purpose of intensive subsistence farming is to get maximum yield from the available land. Extensive irrigation methods and large quantities of chemical fertilisers are used in this system of farming.
Repeated division of land amongst successive generations of farmers decreases individual land holding, further encouraging farmers to use all available means to increase yield. Commercial farming is another system of cultivation.
This involves the cultivation of a crop in large quantities for the purpose of selling it in the market. This system uses high yielding seeds, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Plantations of crops like tea in Assam and north Bengal, coffee in Karnataka, rubber in Kerala, and bamboo, sugarcane, cotton and banana, are also forms of commercial farming.
In these plantations, a single crop is cultivated over vast areas. The cultivation of a crop can be classified as commercial or subsistence farming, depending on the area where it is grown.
In India, the most popular name for such shifting cultivation is Jhumming, in many of our north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland.
Another system of cultivation practised in India is called intensive subsistence farming. This system is practised in densely populated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh. The main purpose of intensive subsistence farming is to get maximum yield from the available land. Extensive irrigation methods and large quantities of chemical fertilisers are used in this system of farming.
Repeated division of land amongst successive generations of farmers decreases individual land holding, further encouraging farmers to use all available means to increase yield. Commercial farming is another system of cultivation.
This involves the cultivation of a crop in large quantities for the purpose of selling it in the market. This system uses high yielding seeds, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Plantations of crops like tea in Assam and north Bengal, coffee in Karnataka, rubber in Kerala, and bamboo, sugarcane, cotton and banana, are also forms of commercial farming.
In these plantations, a single crop is cultivated over vast areas. The cultivation of a crop can be classified as commercial or subsistence farming, depending on the area where it is grown.
Cropping
Seasons in India
Agriculture in India also follows three
distinct cropping seasons i.e. rabi, kharif and zaid.
Rabi crops are sown from October to December and harvested in April to June next year. Important rabi crops are wheat, mustard, barley, grams and peas. The important areas of rabi crops are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir.
A movement launched in India in the mid-1960s promoted the use of high-yield seeds, and an increase in the use of fertilisers and irrigation. This movement is called the Green Revolution of India.
Kharif crops are sown in July to August with the onset of monsoons and harvested in September and October. Important kharif crops are rice, maize, millets like jowar and bajra, pulses like arhar or tur, moong and urad, fibre crops like cotton and jute, and oilseeds like groundnut and soybean. The main rice-producing areas in India are Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Konkan in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The summer months between harvesting the rabi crop and sowing the kharif crop, are called the zaid season. During this season, famers cultivate crops that grow quickly, like watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, summer vegetables and fodder crops.
Rabi crops are sown from October to December and harvested in April to June next year. Important rabi crops are wheat, mustard, barley, grams and peas. The important areas of rabi crops are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir.
A movement launched in India in the mid-1960s promoted the use of high-yield seeds, and an increase in the use of fertilisers and irrigation. This movement is called the Green Revolution of India.
Kharif crops are sown in July to August with the onset of monsoons and harvested in September and October. Important kharif crops are rice, maize, millets like jowar and bajra, pulses like arhar or tur, moong and urad, fibre crops like cotton and jute, and oilseeds like groundnut and soybean. The main rice-producing areas in India are Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Konkan in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The summer months between harvesting the rabi crop and sowing the kharif crop, are called the zaid season. During this season, famers cultivate crops that grow quickly, like watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, summer vegetables and fodder crops.
Major
Crops
India is the second largest producer of rice
in the world. Rice is a kharif crop that requires a high temperature and
humidity and more than 100 cm of rainfall for proper growth. Wheat is a
rabi crop that requires cool weather for growth and warm weather for ripening
with 50 to 75 cm of rainfall.
Maize is majorly a kharif crop and grows well in old alluvial soils at moderate temperature from 21 to 27 degrees Celsius.
Food grains, like jowar, bajra and ragi, are together called coarse grains or millets. Coarse grains are also used as animal feed. Jowar, also called sorghum, is the third most important food grain grown in India. This is a rain-fed crop that requires little or no irrigation.
Bajra grows well in shallow black soils and sandy soils of Rajasthan. Finger millet or ragi is known for its high nutritional value. Ragi grows well in almost all types of soils, like red, black, sandy or loamy soil.
Pulses are hardy crops that grow well in dry weather and are grown in rotation with other crops. This is because the roots of all pulses, have nitrogen-fixing nodules that help restore soil fertility.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world. Sugarcane grows in many different kinds of soils. The crop takes almost a year to mature and requires a hot, humid climate with around 75 to 100 cm of rainfall. Groundnut, coconut, mustard, sesame, soybean, linseed, and castor, cotton and sunflower seeds are major oilseeds cultivated in India.
Groundnut is a kharif crop, while linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Castor seeds are grown in both the rabi and kharif seasons. Sesame is a rabi crop in southern India and a kharif crop in northern India. Groundnut requires accounts for about 50% of the total oilseeds produced in India.
Maize is majorly a kharif crop and grows well in old alluvial soils at moderate temperature from 21 to 27 degrees Celsius.
Food grains, like jowar, bajra and ragi, are together called coarse grains or millets. Coarse grains are also used as animal feed. Jowar, also called sorghum, is the third most important food grain grown in India. This is a rain-fed crop that requires little or no irrigation.
Bajra grows well in shallow black soils and sandy soils of Rajasthan. Finger millet or ragi is known for its high nutritional value. Ragi grows well in almost all types of soils, like red, black, sandy or loamy soil.
Pulses are hardy crops that grow well in dry weather and are grown in rotation with other crops. This is because the roots of all pulses, have nitrogen-fixing nodules that help restore soil fertility.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world. Sugarcane grows in many different kinds of soils. The crop takes almost a year to mature and requires a hot, humid climate with around 75 to 100 cm of rainfall. Groundnut, coconut, mustard, sesame, soybean, linseed, and castor, cotton and sunflower seeds are major oilseeds cultivated in India.
Groundnut is a kharif crop, while linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Castor seeds are grown in both the rabi and kharif seasons. Sesame is a rabi crop in southern India and a kharif crop in northern India. Groundnut requires accounts for about 50% of the total oilseeds produced in India.
Tea and coffee are beverage crops grown as
plantation crops. A tea plant is a bush that grows in deep, fertile,
well-drained soil and requires warm and humid climate with frequent showers for
continuous growth.
The Arabica variety of coffee grown in India is appreciated the world over for its superior quality. India ranks first in the production of fruits and vegetables in the world. Latex and is derived from a non-food plantation crop called rubber. Rubber trees grow well in regions with hot and humid climate and over 200 cm of rainfall every year.
The Arabica variety of coffee grown in India is appreciated the world over for its superior quality. India ranks first in the production of fruits and vegetables in the world. Latex and is derived from a non-food plantation crop called rubber. Rubber trees grow well in regions with hot and humid climate and over 200 cm of rainfall every year.
While cotton, jute and hemp are grown as fibre
crops, silk is obtained from cocoons of silkworms fed on mulberry leaves.
Cotton grows well in the black soil of the Deccan Plateau and is a kharif crop
which requires a high temperature and light rainfall or irrigation for proper
growth. Jute grows well on fertile well-drained soils in regions where
flood waters renew the topsoil every year. The crop requires a high temperature
for proper growth.
Technological and Institutional Reforms
The main problems faced by farmers in India
are:
Fragmentation of land holdings by successive
inheritance
Primitive methods of farming
Dependence on monsoon and natural fertility of
soil
Exploitation by local money lenders and
middlemen
Lack of insurance against natural calamities
The technological and institutional changes initiated in India to improve the condition of farmers include:
The land reforms initiated in the first five-year plan aimed to:
abolish zamindari and consolidate land
holdings. The consolidation of land holdings involved combining adjacent small
fields into single large farms and encouraging individual land owners to do
cooperative farming.
Agricultural reforms in the 1960s and 1970s known as the green revolution in India:
Providing high yielding varieties of seeds and
fertilisers to farmers, and
Developing large-scale irrigation facilities
to allow them to grow two crops in a year.
Continued expansion of farming areas.
White
revolution:
Doctor Verghese Kurien is credited with
architecting Operation Flood -- the largest dairy development programme in the
world.
The government launched a comprehensive land development programme in the 1980s and 1990s:
Insurance cover to farmers against damage to
crops and
Setting up of rural banks and cooperative
societies to provide them loans on easy rates of interest.
The government also started broadcasting radio and television programmes to educate farmers about new techniques of agriculture and give them prior warning about weather conditions. To stop the exploitation of farmers by middlemen, the government announced the procurement, remunerative and minimum support prices of all the major crops in India.
The government also launched personal benefit schemes for farmers, like the Kisan Credit Card and the Personal Accident Insurance Scheme. Under the Land Ceiling Act by government no individual or family could own more than a certain quantum of land.
Contribution
of Agriculture to Economy
Agriculture provides employment to around 63%
of our total population. However, the share of agriculture in our gross
domestic product or GDP is declining. A decrease in the share of
agriculture in our GDP does not mean that our agricultural output has
decreased. It means that the growth in agriculture is slowing down and is much
lower as compared to the growth in industries and services.
The slowing down of growth in agriculture is generating fewer employment opportunities in this sector. The government set up institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, I-C-A-R, and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, I-A-R-I, and several agricultural, veterinary and horticulture universities.
The aim of these institutions is to provide education, and research and development facilities for the modernisation and growth of agriculture in India. The government has developed better meteorological facilities for more dependable weather forecasts, and improved infrastructure in villages.
Regardless of the above, farmers still face certain challenges in agriculture. One of the important steps in the green revolution in India was to make fertilisers available to farmers at subsidised or reduced rates. The subsidy on fertilisers has now been reduced and has increased the cost of production for the farmers.
A reduction in import duties on agricultural items is another challenge to the Indian farmers in terms of international competition. Inadequate irrigation and power facilities for the farmers is also an issue. Rural infrastructure facilities like roads and markets also need to be further developed.
The slowing down of growth in agriculture is generating fewer employment opportunities in this sector. The government set up institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, I-C-A-R, and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, I-A-R-I, and several agricultural, veterinary and horticulture universities.
The aim of these institutions is to provide education, and research and development facilities for the modernisation and growth of agriculture in India. The government has developed better meteorological facilities for more dependable weather forecasts, and improved infrastructure in villages.
Regardless of the above, farmers still face certain challenges in agriculture. One of the important steps in the green revolution in India was to make fertilisers available to farmers at subsidised or reduced rates. The subsidy on fertilisers has now been reduced and has increased the cost of production for the farmers.
A reduction in import duties on agricultural items is another challenge to the Indian farmers in terms of international competition. Inadequate irrigation and power facilities for the farmers is also an issue. Rural infrastructure facilities like roads and markets also need to be further developed.
Minerals and
Energy Resources
Types and Occurrence of Minerals
Minerals are defined as naturally occurring
homogeneous substances that have a definite internal structure. Some minerals
are essential for our body to carry out its chemical and biological
processes. A rock may contain one or several types of minerals mixed with
organic material.
A geographer studies about the distribution and economic importance of a mineral while, a geologist studies the formation, age and composition of minerals. The properties of a mineral depend on the elements it is made of, and the chemical and physical conditions in which it was formed.
Minerals are classified as metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals and energy or fuel minerals. The metallic minerals can be further classified as ferrous minerals, or the ones that contain iron, non-ferrous minerals and precious metals, like gold, silver and platinum.
Minerals occur in the earth’s crust as:
A geographer studies about the distribution and economic importance of a mineral while, a geologist studies the formation, age and composition of minerals. The properties of a mineral depend on the elements it is made of, and the chemical and physical conditions in which it was formed.
Minerals are classified as metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals and energy or fuel minerals. The metallic minerals can be further classified as ferrous minerals, or the ones that contain iron, non-ferrous minerals and precious metals, like gold, silver and platinum.
Minerals occur in the earth’s crust as:
Veins and lodes in igneous and metamorphic
rocks
Beds or layers in sedimentary rocks
Alluvial or placer deposits on valley floors
Residual mass after weathering of surrounding
rocks
Some metallic minerals, like gold, silver, platinum and tin, are found as alluvial deposits in the sand and soil in valleys. Such alluvial deposits are also called placer deposits. Around 70% of the surface of the earth is covered by water. The water of the seas and oceans, and the ocean floors, also have rich mineral deposits.
India has rich mineral resources in some parts of its territory. To be an ore, a mineral should:
Be abundantly available
Offer sufficient concentration of an element
Have a commercially viable process of
extraction
The places from where mineral ores are extracted are called mines. All the mineral reserves in India are owned by the government. In Meghalaya, families lay claim to coal deposits, and mine coal by digging long narrow tunnels in the ground. This practice is called rat hole mining.
Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals contain iron, non-ferrous
minerals do not contain iron. Ferrous minerals constitute about 75% of the
total production of minerals in India. India exports substantial amounts of
ferrous minerals.
Iron ore and manganese are two important ferrous minerals mined in India. The two main ores of iron are magnetite and hematite. Magnetite has up to 70% iron, while hematite has 50-60% iron. Karnataka and Orissa are the main iron ore producing states in India, followed by Chhattisgarh, Goa and Jharkhand. Major iron ore producing belts of India, are: the Orissa-Jharkhand belt, the Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt, the Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt and the Maharashtra-Goa belt.
High-grade hematite is mined in the Badampahar mines in Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts of Orissa. The Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt is spread over parts of Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. These hills contain 14 deposits of hematite.
The Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt lies in Karnataka. The Kudermukh mines in this region hold one of the largest deposits of iron ore in the world. Orissa is the main manganese-producing state in India, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
The Maharashtra-Goa belt is spread over parts of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Steel is a mixture of several minerals besides iron ore, and one such important mineral is manganese. The reserves of non-ferrous minerals in India are not as abundant as those of ferrous minerals. Copper and bauxite are two important non-ferrous minerals mined in India. Copper is widely used in the electrical, electronic and chemical industries.
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand are the main copper-producing states in India. Aluminium is a strong, yet light-weight metal derived from a non-ferrous mineral. Bauxite is the main ore of aluminium. Orissa is the main bauxite-producing state in India, followed by Gujarat, Jharkhand and Maharashtra.
Iron ore and manganese are two important ferrous minerals mined in India. The two main ores of iron are magnetite and hematite. Magnetite has up to 70% iron, while hematite has 50-60% iron. Karnataka and Orissa are the main iron ore producing states in India, followed by Chhattisgarh, Goa and Jharkhand. Major iron ore producing belts of India, are: the Orissa-Jharkhand belt, the Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt, the Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt and the Maharashtra-Goa belt.
High-grade hematite is mined in the Badampahar mines in Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts of Orissa. The Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt is spread over parts of Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. These hills contain 14 deposits of hematite.
The Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt lies in Karnataka. The Kudermukh mines in this region hold one of the largest deposits of iron ore in the world. Orissa is the main manganese-producing state in India, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
The Maharashtra-Goa belt is spread over parts of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Steel is a mixture of several minerals besides iron ore, and one such important mineral is manganese. The reserves of non-ferrous minerals in India are not as abundant as those of ferrous minerals. Copper and bauxite are two important non-ferrous minerals mined in India. Copper is widely used in the electrical, electronic and chemical industries.
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand are the main copper-producing states in India. Aluminium is a strong, yet light-weight metal derived from a non-ferrous mineral. Bauxite is the main ore of aluminium. Orissa is the main bauxite-producing state in India, followed by Gujarat, Jharkhand and Maharashtra.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica is a non-metallic mineral composed of
thin leaves or sheets joined together. Mica is found in many colours, from
transparent to black, green, yellow, brown and red. Mica provides excellent
electrical insulation with low power-loss even at very high voltages. Mica is
used extensively in the electrical and electronics industries.
The main mica-producing regions in India are the northern Chhota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand, Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nellore in Andhra Pradesh. The Koderma, Gaya and Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand is the largest producer of mica in India. Limestone is a form of sedimentary rock almost entirely composed of calcium carbonate. Limestone is mainly used in smelting iron ore and in the manufacturing of cement.
Andhra Pradesh is the main limestone-producing state in India, followed by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and others.
Mine workers face serious risks to their health and life. Indiscriminate mining leads to extensive deforestation. Dumping of mining waste results in soil and land degradation and pollution of air and fresh water bodies.
We need stricter laws and implementation of personal and environmental safety regulations to keep mining a safe activity. Usable minerals are only about 1% of the earth’s crust. Minerals are limited and non-renewable resources. Continuous mining starts yielding poor quality ores at much higher cost. We need to conserve our mineral resources. Recycling and reusing material finding suitable substitutes of minerals can help us conserve our mineral resources.
The main mica-producing regions in India are the northern Chhota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand, Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nellore in Andhra Pradesh. The Koderma, Gaya and Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand is the largest producer of mica in India. Limestone is a form of sedimentary rock almost entirely composed of calcium carbonate. Limestone is mainly used in smelting iron ore and in the manufacturing of cement.
Andhra Pradesh is the main limestone-producing state in India, followed by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and others.
Mine workers face serious risks to their health and life. Indiscriminate mining leads to extensive deforestation. Dumping of mining waste results in soil and land degradation and pollution of air and fresh water bodies.
We need stricter laws and implementation of personal and environmental safety regulations to keep mining a safe activity. Usable minerals are only about 1% of the earth’s crust. Minerals are limited and non-renewable resources. Continuous mining starts yielding poor quality ores at much higher cost. We need to conserve our mineral resources. Recycling and reusing material finding suitable substitutes of minerals can help us conserve our mineral resources.
Energy Resources
We need energy in different forms for all our
daily activities. The conventional sources of energy include firewood, cattle
dung cakes, minerals like coal, petroleum and natural gas, and electricity
generated by flowing water or burning fuel.
The non-conventional sources of energy include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, atomic energy and biogas. Firewood and cattle dung cakes are the primary sources of energy, meeting around 70% of the total energy requirement in our villages.
The intense heat and pressure over millions of years has turned prehistoric plant material buried under the earth into coal. The variety of coal depends on how long the plant material has been buried, at what depth and under how much pressure. Peat is a low carbon variety that has high moisture and provides low heat output. Lignite is a soft, low-grade variety of coal that has high moisture content and appears brownish in colour.
Bituminous coal is formed from plant material buried deep in the earth and subjected to very high temperature. Bituminous coal is the most important commercial variety of coal used in metallurgical applications like smelting of iron. The best and the most expensive variety of coal is called anthracite.
In India, coal is found as Gondwana deposits that are over 200 million years old, and tertiary deposits that are just about 55 million years old. The Gondwana deposits in India are found in the Damodar valley in West Bengal and Jharkhand and the Mahanadi, Godavari, Son and Wardha valleys. Tertiary deposits of coal are found in the north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
Coal is bulky and expensive to transport in large quantities so, most power plants and heavy industries relying on coal are located near coal fields. Petroleum provides fuels like petrol and diesel, industrial lubricants and raw material for a number of industries including textiles, fertilisers and cosmetics.
Petroleum deposits are found in anticlines and fault traps in rock formations. Off-shore oil fields in Mumbai High account for 63% of the total petroleum production in India. This is followed by 18% of the production coming from Gujarat and 16% from Assam. Ankaleshwar in Gujarat, and Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan in Assam are other major oil fields in India. Assam is the oldest oil-producing state in India.
Natural gas is a mixture of gases, primarily methane, which is found trapped in rocks. Natural gas is used as auto fuel (CNG), to generate electricity and in the fertiliser industry. Large deposits of natural gas have been found in the Krishna-Godavari basin, Mumbai High, the Gulf of Cambay and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The natural gas fields in Mumbai High and Bassein are linked to the power and fertiliser plants in western and northern India by the 1700-kilometre long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur or HVJ Natural Gas Pipeline.
The non-conventional sources of energy include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, atomic energy and biogas. Firewood and cattle dung cakes are the primary sources of energy, meeting around 70% of the total energy requirement in our villages.
The intense heat and pressure over millions of years has turned prehistoric plant material buried under the earth into coal. The variety of coal depends on how long the plant material has been buried, at what depth and under how much pressure. Peat is a low carbon variety that has high moisture and provides low heat output. Lignite is a soft, low-grade variety of coal that has high moisture content and appears brownish in colour.
Bituminous coal is formed from plant material buried deep in the earth and subjected to very high temperature. Bituminous coal is the most important commercial variety of coal used in metallurgical applications like smelting of iron. The best and the most expensive variety of coal is called anthracite.
In India, coal is found as Gondwana deposits that are over 200 million years old, and tertiary deposits that are just about 55 million years old. The Gondwana deposits in India are found in the Damodar valley in West Bengal and Jharkhand and the Mahanadi, Godavari, Son and Wardha valleys. Tertiary deposits of coal are found in the north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
Coal is bulky and expensive to transport in large quantities so, most power plants and heavy industries relying on coal are located near coal fields. Petroleum provides fuels like petrol and diesel, industrial lubricants and raw material for a number of industries including textiles, fertilisers and cosmetics.
Petroleum deposits are found in anticlines and fault traps in rock formations. Off-shore oil fields in Mumbai High account for 63% of the total petroleum production in India. This is followed by 18% of the production coming from Gujarat and 16% from Assam. Ankaleshwar in Gujarat, and Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan in Assam are other major oil fields in India. Assam is the oldest oil-producing state in India.
Natural gas is a mixture of gases, primarily methane, which is found trapped in rocks. Natural gas is used as auto fuel (CNG), to generate electricity and in the fertiliser industry. Large deposits of natural gas have been found in the Krishna-Godavari basin, Mumbai High, the Gulf of Cambay and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The natural gas fields in Mumbai High and Bassein are linked to the power and fertiliser plants in western and northern India by the 1700-kilometre long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur or HVJ Natural Gas Pipeline.
Electricity and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The electricity generated by the energy of
flowing water is called hydroelectricity which is a renewable resource of
energy. Large hydropower plants like Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation
and Kopili are called multi-purpose river projects.
Electricity generated from the heat of burning fuel minerals like coal, petroleum and natural gas is called thermal electricity and hence is produced using non-renewable fossil fuels. India has over 310 thermal power plants. Nuclear or atomic energy is also used to generate electricity.
India currently has 6 operational nuclear power plants in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. The increasing prices, shortage in supply and environmental concerns against using fossil fuels can severely affect our energy security.
The answer to the problem of energy security lies in using non-conventional sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal energy and geothermal energy. The secret of using solar power lies in photovoltaic technology. This technology uses panels made of photovoltaic cells that trap solar energy and convert it into electricity.
The use of solar energy in rural India can reduce dependence on firewood and cattle dung cakes. Wind turbines convert the energy of the blowing wind into electricity. The largest wind farm in India is in Tamil Nadu, spread from Nagercoil to Madurai. Animal, human and farm waste produce biogas on decomposition, which is a better fuel than kerosene, cattle dung cakes, firewood and coal. Biogas plants that operate on animal waste are called gobar gas plants in India.
Oceanic tides are used to generate electricity called tidal energy. The National Hydropower Corporation has set up a 900 megawatt tidal energy plant in the Gulf of Kutch that provides excellent conditions for harnessing tidal energy. The heat trapped in the depths of the earth is called geothermal energy. Experimental projects to utilise geothermal energy have been set up at the Parvati Valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, and the Puga Valley in Ladakh.
Electricity generated from the heat of burning fuel minerals like coal, petroleum and natural gas is called thermal electricity and hence is produced using non-renewable fossil fuels. India has over 310 thermal power plants. Nuclear or atomic energy is also used to generate electricity.
India currently has 6 operational nuclear power plants in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. The increasing prices, shortage in supply and environmental concerns against using fossil fuels can severely affect our energy security.
The answer to the problem of energy security lies in using non-conventional sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal energy and geothermal energy. The secret of using solar power lies in photovoltaic technology. This technology uses panels made of photovoltaic cells that trap solar energy and convert it into electricity.
The use of solar energy in rural India can reduce dependence on firewood and cattle dung cakes. Wind turbines convert the energy of the blowing wind into electricity. The largest wind farm in India is in Tamil Nadu, spread from Nagercoil to Madurai. Animal, human and farm waste produce biogas on decomposition, which is a better fuel than kerosene, cattle dung cakes, firewood and coal. Biogas plants that operate on animal waste are called gobar gas plants in India.
Oceanic tides are used to generate electricity called tidal energy. The National Hydropower Corporation has set up a 900 megawatt tidal energy plant in the Gulf of Kutch that provides excellent conditions for harnessing tidal energy. The heat trapped in the depths of the earth is called geothermal energy. Experimental projects to utilise geothermal energy have been set up at the Parvati Valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, and the Puga Valley in Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy
Energy requirements are rising in all parts of
India. We are largely dependent on fuel minerals like coal, petroleum and
natural gas to fulfil our energy requirements.
Minerals are non-renewable resources. Thus, the supply of coal, petroleum and natural gas is limited. Heavy dependence on fuel minerals for energy is not a sustainable plan to meet our future energy requirements.
A sustainable path of energy development involves:
Minerals are non-renewable resources. Thus, the supply of coal, petroleum and natural gas is limited. Heavy dependence on fuel minerals for energy is not a sustainable plan to meet our future energy requirements.
A sustainable path of energy development involves:
Finding renewable, non-conventional sources of
energy
Conservation of the energy available today
A lot of energy is wasted in our country through inefficient means of usage. We can conserve fuel minerals like petroleum and natural gas by forming car pools and using public transport instead of private vehicles. And also, by using better, renewable fuels like biogas in place of coal for cooking. We can conserve energy by switching off all lights, fans and electrical devices when not required and using power saving devices.
Manufacturing
Industries
Introduction to Manufacturing Industries
The process of using raw material to produce
more valuable goods in large quantities is called manufacturing. Industries
that manufacture finished products from primary material are called
manufacturing industries in the secondary sector.
Manufacturing industries play a crucial role in the overall, and especially the economic development of a country. A country’s economic strength is measured by the growth of its manufacturing industries.
India is traditionally an agricultural country. The growth in manufacturing industries has modernised farming, has generated a large number of employment opportunities. This has reduced the dependence of people on agriculture, allowed us to export our goods to other countries and build up our reserves of foreign exchange and hence led to overall growth and prosperity. Agriculture and industry mutually benefit each other.
India has a large number of agro-based industries that depend on agricultural produce for raw material. Agriculture plays an important role in expanding our manufacturing industry. Manufacturing industry provides farmers with fertilisers, pesticides, and different types of farming machines and equipment. To stay competitive in the global market, we must ensure that the quality of our goods is at par with the best.
Manufacturing industries play a crucial role in the overall, and especially the economic development of a country. A country’s economic strength is measured by the growth of its manufacturing industries.
India is traditionally an agricultural country. The growth in manufacturing industries has modernised farming, has generated a large number of employment opportunities. This has reduced the dependence of people on agriculture, allowed us to export our goods to other countries and build up our reserves of foreign exchange and hence led to overall growth and prosperity. Agriculture and industry mutually benefit each other.
India has a large number of agro-based industries that depend on agricultural produce for raw material. Agriculture plays an important role in expanding our manufacturing industry. Manufacturing industry provides farmers with fertilisers, pesticides, and different types of farming machines and equipment. To stay competitive in the global market, we must ensure that the quality of our goods is at par with the best.
Location and Classification of Industries
The key factor influencing all decisions about
setting up a manufacturing industry, including its location, is the cost. The
main costs in a manufacturing industry are for procuring raw material,
producing goods and distributing finished goods in the market.
The ideal location for a factory will be a place that has easy and low-cost availability of raw material, capital, land, labour, power, transport, and market.
A manufacturing industry promotes the urbanisation of its neighbourhood. Already urbanised areas also attract industries, since they provide ready facilities for transport, banking, labour, consultancy, etc. If an urban centre offers sufficient facilities and advantages, several industries come up there together to form an industrial agglomeration. These industries together form an agglomeration economy.
Before independence, most industries in India were located in port cities to enable easy overseas trade. Manufacturing industries are classified based on their source of raw material, role, capital investment, ownership pattern, and bulk of supplies like raw material and finished products. Based on their source of raw material, manufacturing industries can be classified as agro-based industries and mineral-based industries.
Based on their source of raw material, manufacturing industries are classified as agro-based industries and mineral-based industries. Based on the weight or bulk of the raw material used and the finished products, manufacturing industries can be classified as heavy and light industries. Based on their role, manufacturing industries can be classified as basic or key industries, and consumer industries. Based on the capital investment, manufacturing industries can be classified as small-scale and large scale-industries.
Based on ownership, manufacturing industries can be classified as public sector, private sector, joint sector and cooperative industries.
While public sector industries are owned and run by the government, private sector companies are owned by individuals or business houses. Joint sector companies are jointly owned and managed by the government and the private sector. Cooperative industries are owned by people actually involved in the production, like raw material producers, suppliers and workers.
The total share of industries in India’s GDP is 27% where manufacturing industries contribute only 17% to our GDP.
The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council or NMCC has been set up to achieve a growth of 12% in the manufacturing industry by adopting appropriate policies and improving productivity
The ideal location for a factory will be a place that has easy and low-cost availability of raw material, capital, land, labour, power, transport, and market.
A manufacturing industry promotes the urbanisation of its neighbourhood. Already urbanised areas also attract industries, since they provide ready facilities for transport, banking, labour, consultancy, etc. If an urban centre offers sufficient facilities and advantages, several industries come up there together to form an industrial agglomeration. These industries together form an agglomeration economy.
Before independence, most industries in India were located in port cities to enable easy overseas trade. Manufacturing industries are classified based on their source of raw material, role, capital investment, ownership pattern, and bulk of supplies like raw material and finished products. Based on their source of raw material, manufacturing industries can be classified as agro-based industries and mineral-based industries.
Based on their source of raw material, manufacturing industries are classified as agro-based industries and mineral-based industries. Based on the weight or bulk of the raw material used and the finished products, manufacturing industries can be classified as heavy and light industries. Based on their role, manufacturing industries can be classified as basic or key industries, and consumer industries. Based on the capital investment, manufacturing industries can be classified as small-scale and large scale-industries.
Based on ownership, manufacturing industries can be classified as public sector, private sector, joint sector and cooperative industries.
While public sector industries are owned and run by the government, private sector companies are owned by individuals or business houses. Joint sector companies are jointly owned and managed by the government and the private sector. Cooperative industries are owned by people actually involved in the production, like raw material producers, suppliers and workers.
The total share of industries in India’s GDP is 27% where manufacturing industries contribute only 17% to our GDP.
The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council or NMCC has been set up to achieve a growth of 12% in the manufacturing industry by adopting appropriate policies and improving productivity
Mineral Based Industries
Manufacturing industries that use minerals as
raw material are called mineral-based industries. The iron and steel industry
is the basic industry on which all other industries depend. The production and
per capita consumption of steel is a measure of a country’s economic
development.
The main raw materials used in the iron and steel industry are iron ore, coal and limestone. The raw materials and finished products of iron and steel industries are quite bulky, these industries must be located near the mining areas of the required minerals and must be connected by a good transport network.
India is the ninth largest producer of crude steel and the largest producer of sponge iron in the world. India is also a leading exporter of steel in the world.
The per capita consumption of steel in India is only 32 kilograms. There are 10 primary integrated steel plants in India. These integrated plants handle all stages of steel production, from procurement of basic raw material to producing finished rolled and shaped steel. India has many mini steel plants that produce customised alloy steel using scrap iron or sponge iron as raw material.
China has become the world’s largest producer and consumer of steel, leaving India far behind. Most steel manufacturing industries are located in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau region because of the availability of inexpensive, high-grade raw material and abundant cheap labour. The main challenges faced by the industry in realising its full potential are limited supply of expensive coking coal, erratic power supply, low output of labour and poor infrastructure. The future of India’s iron and steel industry is bright due to India’s liberalisation policy and foreign direct investment in the industry.
Aluminium is a lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal with excellent malleability and ductility. Aluminium is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and can be alloyed with other metals to make it stronger. Aluminium is increasingly being used as a substitute for steel, copper, zinc and lead in several industries. The process of deriving metallic aluminium from its ore is called aluminium smelting. Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India.
Bauxite is the chief ore of aluminium. Bauxite is refined to produce alumina, which is smelted to derive metallic aluminium.
India has 8 aluminium smelting plants located in Orissa, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The production of aluminium requires the transport of bulky raw materials and large amounts of electricity, assured supply of power and good transport connectivity are the main criteria for the location of an aluminium smelting plant. The Indian chemical industry is the third largest in Asia and the 12th largest in the world. The Indian chemical industry contributes 3% to our national GDP.
The main inorganic chemicals produced in India include sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalis, soda ash and caustic soda. Sulphuric acid is used in the production of fertilisers, plastics, synthetic fibres, adhesives, paints and dyes. Soda ash is used in manufacturing soap, glass, detergents and paper. Petrochemicals are materials derived as the by-products of petroleum refining. Petrochemicals are used to manufacture synthetic fibre, synthetic rubber, dyes and paints, fertilisers, adhesives and medicinal drugs.
The main raw materials used in the iron and steel industry are iron ore, coal and limestone. The raw materials and finished products of iron and steel industries are quite bulky, these industries must be located near the mining areas of the required minerals and must be connected by a good transport network.
India is the ninth largest producer of crude steel and the largest producer of sponge iron in the world. India is also a leading exporter of steel in the world.
The per capita consumption of steel in India is only 32 kilograms. There are 10 primary integrated steel plants in India. These integrated plants handle all stages of steel production, from procurement of basic raw material to producing finished rolled and shaped steel. India has many mini steel plants that produce customised alloy steel using scrap iron or sponge iron as raw material.
China has become the world’s largest producer and consumer of steel, leaving India far behind. Most steel manufacturing industries are located in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau region because of the availability of inexpensive, high-grade raw material and abundant cheap labour. The main challenges faced by the industry in realising its full potential are limited supply of expensive coking coal, erratic power supply, low output of labour and poor infrastructure. The future of India’s iron and steel industry is bright due to India’s liberalisation policy and foreign direct investment in the industry.
Aluminium is a lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal with excellent malleability and ductility. Aluminium is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and can be alloyed with other metals to make it stronger. Aluminium is increasingly being used as a substitute for steel, copper, zinc and lead in several industries. The process of deriving metallic aluminium from its ore is called aluminium smelting. Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India.
Bauxite is the chief ore of aluminium. Bauxite is refined to produce alumina, which is smelted to derive metallic aluminium.
India has 8 aluminium smelting plants located in Orissa, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The production of aluminium requires the transport of bulky raw materials and large amounts of electricity, assured supply of power and good transport connectivity are the main criteria for the location of an aluminium smelting plant. The Indian chemical industry is the third largest in Asia and the 12th largest in the world. The Indian chemical industry contributes 3% to our national GDP.
The main inorganic chemicals produced in India include sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalis, soda ash and caustic soda. Sulphuric acid is used in the production of fertilisers, plastics, synthetic fibres, adhesives, paints and dyes. Soda ash is used in manufacturing soap, glass, detergents and paper. Petrochemicals are materials derived as the by-products of petroleum refining. Petrochemicals are used to manufacture synthetic fibre, synthetic rubber, dyes and paints, fertilisers, adhesives and medicinal drugs.
Industrial Pollution and Environment Degradation
Industries have caused severe pollution of our
natural resources. Industries cause environmental degradation through four main
types of pollution i.e. air pollution, water pollution, land pollution or soil
degradation, and noise pollution.
Smoke contains undesirable gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide, besides solid and liquid particulate matter, in the form of dust and spray mist, which cause air pollution. Air pollution affects the health of humans, animals and plants alike and also causes damage to buildings.
Water pollution is caused by the discharge of untreated chemical waste like dyes, detergents, acids, heavy metals like lead and mercury, pesticides, fertilisers, and plastics from industries, into fresh water bodies like rivers and lakes. Solid wastes like fly ash, phospo gypsum, and iron and steel slag also cause water pollution.
The industries that cause major amount of water pollution are paper and pulp industries, oil refineries, tanneries and electroplating industries. The discharge of hot water from thermal power plants into rivers before cooling is called thermal pollution of water. Radioactive waste, hazardous chemicals, glass, plastic, industrial effluents and non-biodegradable garbage are the main agents of land pollution. Rain water falling on polluted land dissolves and carries many of the pollutants further into the ground and pollutes groundwater.
Loud noise can lead to irritation, loss of hearing, and an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Industrial machinery, construction activities, generators, and equipment like saws and pneumatic drills are mainly responsible for noise pollution. One of the most important steps for the control of environmental degradation is treating hot and polluted wastewater from industries before releasing it into our rivers and lakes.
Wastewater treatment involves:
Smoke contains undesirable gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide, besides solid and liquid particulate matter, in the form of dust and spray mist, which cause air pollution. Air pollution affects the health of humans, animals and plants alike and also causes damage to buildings.
Water pollution is caused by the discharge of untreated chemical waste like dyes, detergents, acids, heavy metals like lead and mercury, pesticides, fertilisers, and plastics from industries, into fresh water bodies like rivers and lakes. Solid wastes like fly ash, phospo gypsum, and iron and steel slag also cause water pollution.
The industries that cause major amount of water pollution are paper and pulp industries, oil refineries, tanneries and electroplating industries. The discharge of hot water from thermal power plants into rivers before cooling is called thermal pollution of water. Radioactive waste, hazardous chemicals, glass, plastic, industrial effluents and non-biodegradable garbage are the main agents of land pollution. Rain water falling on polluted land dissolves and carries many of the pollutants further into the ground and pollutes groundwater.
Loud noise can lead to irritation, loss of hearing, and an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Industrial machinery, construction activities, generators, and equipment like saws and pneumatic drills are mainly responsible for noise pollution. One of the most important steps for the control of environmental degradation is treating hot and polluted wastewater from industries before releasing it into our rivers and lakes.
Wastewater treatment involves:
Primary treatment through screening, grinding,
flocculation and sedimentation.
Secondary treatment through bacterial action
to digest harmful chemicals.
Tertiary stage of stirring with chemicals to
neutralise remaining harmful waste.
Treated wastewater can be recycled for reuse in industrial processes. Rainwater harvesting can be used to meet the requirements of water for industrial processes.
Legal provisions must be made to regulate the use of groundwater for industrial use. Smoke stacks, filters, scrubbers, and electrostatic and inertial separators remove a large amount of harmful particles from industrial smoke. The emission of smoke itself from industries can be reduced by using more efficient fuels like oil and natural gas in place of coal.
Industrial and generator silencers, and sound-absorbing material are available to reduce the noise level in industries. Industrial workers can use earphones and earplugs for individual protection of health and hearing.
National Thermal Power Corporation or NTPC is a major electricity generation and distribution company in India. NTPC has demonstrated how conservation of environment and natural resources can happen simultaneously with industrial growth by:
Adopting latest technical knowhow
Minimising waste
Providing green cover
Reducing environmental pollution
Continuous monitoring
Life Lines of
National Economy
Means of Transport and Communication
Goods are transported from supply to demand
locations by people called traders. Transport is a key factor that influences
India’s rapid economic development. Based on the medium it uses, the means of
transport can be divided into land transport, water transport and air
transport.
Land transport includes roadways and railways and pipelines used to transport liquid and gaseous material over long distances.
Water transport can be classified as inland transport and overseas transport. Inland transport happens along coastline between two domestic ports or through inland waterways. Overseas transport involves sending goods from one country to another. Air transport can be classified as domestic and international. Private and government-run domestic airways connect different cities of India. International airways connect India with destinations in all parts of the world.
Modern advances in science and technology have not left any part of the world inaccessible. Thus, the world appears a much smaller place today.
Trade requires some means of exchanging ideas and connecting with people. This is where communication comes in. While transport physically transfers people and goods from one place to another, means of communication allow people in different locations to connect with each other without actually travelling.
Some common means of communication are radio, television, cinema, newspapers, the Internet, fax and phone services. A dense, efficient network of transport, and extensive, reliable means of communication are the true lifelines of trade and economic development for India and the rest of the world.
Land transport includes roadways and railways and pipelines used to transport liquid and gaseous material over long distances.
Water transport can be classified as inland transport and overseas transport. Inland transport happens along coastline between two domestic ports or through inland waterways. Overseas transport involves sending goods from one country to another. Air transport can be classified as domestic and international. Private and government-run domestic airways connect different cities of India. International airways connect India with destinations in all parts of the world.
Modern advances in science and technology have not left any part of the world inaccessible. Thus, the world appears a much smaller place today.
Trade requires some means of exchanging ideas and connecting with people. This is where communication comes in. While transport physically transfers people and goods from one place to another, means of communication allow people in different locations to connect with each other without actually travelling.
Some common means of communication are radio, television, cinema, newspapers, the Internet, fax and phone services. A dense, efficient network of transport, and extensive, reliable means of communication are the true lifelines of trade and economic development for India and the rest of the world.
Roadways
The road network in India is amongst the most
widespread in the world. The length of all the roads in India adds up to around
2.3 million kilometres.
Roadways have some practical advantages over railways:
Roadways have some practical advantages over railways:
Road is easier to construct at a lower cost.
Roads are easier to lay on undulating land and
steep slopes, like in a mountainous region.
Is cheaper and transports a small number of
people or goods over short distances.
Roads door-to-door connectivity.
Provides direct feeder links to other places
of goods transport, like seaports, airports and railway stations.
From all-weather metalled roads made of concrete, cement or coal tar, to unpaved, unmetalled roads that go out of use in the rainy season. Based on their capacity to sustain traffic, roads are classified into the following six types: The Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways, National Highways, State Highways, District Roads, Border Roads and Other Roads.
The Golden Quadrilateral reduces travelling time between the major cities of India. The National Highways Authority of India, NHAI, will construct six-lane super highway connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. These roads will form four sides of a quadrilateral, and hence the name.
The east-west corridor connects Silchar in Assam to Porbandar in Gujarat. The north-south corridor connects Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. Indian national highways are constructed and maintained by the Central Public Works Department, or CPWD.
In India, every national highway is given a unique number. Within a state, the roads linking the state capital with different district headquarters are called state highways. State highways are constructed and maintained by the Public Works Department, or PWD, of the state concerned.
The roads connecting a district headquarter to other destinations in the district are called district roads. These roads are constructed and maintained by the Zila Parishad concerned. The roads that run close to India’s international border in the north and north-eastern parts of the country are called Border Roads. Border Roads are constructed and maintained by the Border Roads Organisation that was set up in 1960.
Other roads are mostly rural roads that connect villages with nearby towns. The Government of India has launched a special programme called the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojna to develop such rural roads and connect each village to a town by a motorable road.
The length of roads per hundred square kilometres of area is called road density. Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest road density at 10 kilometres, while Kerala has the highest at 375 kilometres. The average road density of Indian states is 75 kilometres.
India roadways are facing many challenges like:
The roads and national highways in India are
not enough to accommodate the large volume of road traffic. This leads to
frequent traffic jams.
50% of the roads in India are unmetalled and
become difficult during the monsoons.
Roads and bridges in most Indian cities are
quite narrow.
Railways and Pipelines
In India, railways are the primary mode of
transport for passengers and goods. The first train service began from
Boribunder, now known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, to Thane, 60
kilometres away in 1853.
The development of railways has not only helped in uniting India, but also promoted the growth of agriculture and economy.
The Indian railway network is spread over 63,221 route kilometres, connecting 7,031 railway stations all over the country, divided into 16 railway zones.
The vast Indian railways network is serviced by 7,739 locomotives, 29,236 coaches and 2,16,717 wagons. The distance between the two rails forming a railway track determines the gauge of the railway line. Indian railways operate on narrow gauge, meter gauge and broad gauge lines.
Broad gauge forms the biggest part of the Indian railway network. The Indian Railways have undertaken a programme, called Project Unigauge, to convert all metre gauge and narrow gauge railway lines into broad gauge lines.
The construction of railways depends largely on local terrain, and economic and administrative factors. The vast level lands of the northern plains with the huge population and resources were the most favourable areas for the expansion of railways. In the hilly peninsular region, railway lines were laid through hills, valleys and tunnels. The lofty mountains in the Himalayan region with lesser population and economic opportunities are not favourable for the construction of railways.
The sandy deserts of Rajasthan, the swamps of Gujarat, and the heavily forested regions of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are some of the challenges railways have overcome for expansion in these regions. The Konkan railway route is prone to landslides and sinking of railway lines. Considering the volume of passengers and goods transported, Indian Railways is more important to India’s economy than all other means of transport.
Our railways are facing certain challenges like:
The development of railways has not only helped in uniting India, but also promoted the growth of agriculture and economy.
The Indian railway network is spread over 63,221 route kilometres, connecting 7,031 railway stations all over the country, divided into 16 railway zones.
The vast Indian railways network is serviced by 7,739 locomotives, 29,236 coaches and 2,16,717 wagons. The distance between the two rails forming a railway track determines the gauge of the railway line. Indian railways operate on narrow gauge, meter gauge and broad gauge lines.
Broad gauge forms the biggest part of the Indian railway network. The Indian Railways have undertaken a programme, called Project Unigauge, to convert all metre gauge and narrow gauge railway lines into broad gauge lines.
The construction of railways depends largely on local terrain, and economic and administrative factors. The vast level lands of the northern plains with the huge population and resources were the most favourable areas for the expansion of railways. In the hilly peninsular region, railway lines were laid through hills, valleys and tunnels. The lofty mountains in the Himalayan region with lesser population and economic opportunities are not favourable for the construction of railways.
The sandy deserts of Rajasthan, the swamps of Gujarat, and the heavily forested regions of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are some of the challenges railways have overcome for expansion in these regions. The Konkan railway route is prone to landslides and sinking of railway lines. Considering the volume of passengers and goods transported, Indian Railways is more important to India’s economy than all other means of transport.
Our railways are facing certain challenges like:
Many passengers travel on trains without a
proper ticket leading to a huge revenue loss to the railways
Misuse of the safety feature to stop the train
People disrupt railway traffic and damage
railway property in the name of demonstrations.
Pipelines are networks of pipes that bring water into our house and take wastes away. Now pipelines are being used to transport several industrial materials.
There are three important gas and oil pipeline networks in India. An oil pipeline runs from the oil fields in Digboi in Assam to Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. The main branches of this oil pipeline are Guwahati to Siliguri, Barauni to Haldia via Rajbandh, and Rajbandh to Maurigram.
Another oil pipeline runs from oil fields in Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab. This oil pipeline passes through Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has several branches leading to Koyali and Chakshu, etc.
A natural gas pipeline runs from the Hazira gas fields in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, while passing through Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh. Its branches supply gas to Kota in Rajasthan and several places like Barbala and Shahjahanpur in Uttar Pradesh. Pipelines are difficult and expensive to construct. But once constructed, they require very little maintenance and save a lot of money by eliminating transport losses and delays.
Waterways and Airways
Sea trade has been practised in India since
ancient times. Transport by waterways is the most fuel-efficient, cost-effective
and environment-friendly way to carry heavy goods from one place to another.
Large rivers and backwaters provide around 14,500 kilometres of inland waterways in India where, only 3,700 kilometres of these are accessible to mechanised boats.
Inland waterways in India are provided by the rivers Ganga, Brahmputra, Godavari, Krishna, Brahmani, Barak, canals like the East-West canal, West Coast canal, Buckingham canal, Damodar Valley Corporation canal and the Sunderbans area.
National waterway number 1 on the Ganga connects Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh to Haldia in West Bengal covering a distance of 1,620 kilometres. National waterway number 2 on the Brahmaputra connects Sadiya in Arunachal Pradesh to Dhubri in Assam covering a distance of 891 kilometres. National waterway number 3 on the West Coast canal in Kerala connects Kottapurma in the north to Ashtamudi Kayal in the south, covering a distance of 205 kilometres.
The major international trade from India is carried out from its ports that allow docking facilities for large vessels. India has a long coastline of around 7,516 kilometres along which lie 12 major and 181 medium and small ports.
Around 95% of India’s international trade is carried out from these 12 major ports which are:
Large rivers and backwaters provide around 14,500 kilometres of inland waterways in India where, only 3,700 kilometres of these are accessible to mechanised boats.
Inland waterways in India are provided by the rivers Ganga, Brahmputra, Godavari, Krishna, Brahmani, Barak, canals like the East-West canal, West Coast canal, Buckingham canal, Damodar Valley Corporation canal and the Sunderbans area.
National waterway number 1 on the Ganga connects Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh to Haldia in West Bengal covering a distance of 1,620 kilometres. National waterway number 2 on the Brahmaputra connects Sadiya in Arunachal Pradesh to Dhubri in Assam covering a distance of 891 kilometres. National waterway number 3 on the West Coast canal in Kerala connects Kottapurma in the north to Ashtamudi Kayal in the south, covering a distance of 205 kilometres.
The major international trade from India is carried out from its ports that allow docking facilities for large vessels. India has a long coastline of around 7,516 kilometres along which lie 12 major and 181 medium and small ports.
Around 95% of India’s international trade is carried out from these 12 major ports which are:
· The
Kandla Port in the Gulf of Kutch handles exports and imports for the fertile
plains and industrial belts spread over Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
· The
Mumbai Port is the largest port in India.
· The
Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Navi Mumbai was constructed to decongest traffic at
the old Mumbai port.
· The
Mormugao Port in Goa handles around 50% of the total iron ore exports from
India.
· The
New Mangalore Port in Karnataka handles excellent quality iron ore from the
Kudermukh mines.
· The
Kochi Port is a natural harbor and the last port on the south-west coast.
· The
Tuticorin Port in Tamil Nadu handles cargo bound for India as well as our
neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
· The
Chennai Port which is one of the oldest artificial ports in India, and second
only to Mumbai in terms of volume of trade and cargo handled.
· The
Vishakhapatnam Port is the country’s deepest, most protected landlocked port.
· The
Paradip Port in Orissa is the main centre for the export of iron ore.
· The
Haldia Port was developed to decongest the Kolkata Port.
· The
tidal port of Kolkata has a rich Ganga-Brahmaputra hinterland and is an inland
port services by the river Hooghly.
Air travel is the quickest and one of the most comfortable means of transport. The main advantage of using airways is that it can easily cross all kinds of terrain - from mountains, deserts, rainforests and wetlands to oceans. Nationalised air transport in India began in 1953 with the launch of Air India and Indian Airlines. Air India operates international flights from India.
Indian Airlines and its fully owned subsidiary Alliance Air operate domestic flights in India. Indian Airlines operates international flights to some countries in south-east Asia, south Asia and the Middle East. A lot of private airlines operate domestic flights in India.
Helicopter is another means of air travel that does not require long runways to take off or land, unlike airplanes. This form of air transport is especially useful in the north-eastern parts of India where densely forested mountains crisscrossed by rivers make it difficult to construct roads and railways. Pawan Hans Helicopter Company Limited provides helicopter services to government enterprises like ONGC and passenger services in mountainous area that are difficult to access.
Air travel is still very expensive in India and out of the reach of a large part of the population. Air transport is especially useful in the north-eastern parts of India where special arrangements have been made to make air travel services available to the common people.
Means of Communication
From the earliest times, human beings have
felt the need to communicate with each other. The latest advances in
communication are about enabling communication over long distances without the
need for change in location of the sender or receiver.
Communication is of two types personal communication and mass communication. Personal communication is where just two or a small group of people communicate with each other. Personal letters, e-mails and phone calls are examples of inter-personal communication.
Mass communication is communication referred to an indefinite number of people spread over a large geographical area. Radio, television, cinema, newspapers and magazines, and Internet, are examples of mass communication.
India’s postal service is the largest of its kind in the world where the services are provided by the Department of Posts of the Government of India. The Indian postal service handles both letters and parcels. Post cards and envelopes are classified as first-class mail and are delivered on priority using both air and land transport.
Packets of books, and registered newspapers and periodicals are classified as second-class mail, and are delivered using surface transport like roadways, railways and ships.
The Indian postal service has introduced six channels for quicker delivery of letters in large town and cities, called the Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
The telecom network in India is the largest in Asia, with about 37,565 telephone exchanges spread all over the country. All the urban centres and over two-thirds of Indian villages are now connected with subscriber trunk dialling, or STD facility.
The Government of India has made provisions for 24-hour STD facility in every village of India. A uniform rate of STD calls from anywhere in India is possible due to the integration of our space and communication technology development programs.
Communication is of two types personal communication and mass communication. Personal communication is where just two or a small group of people communicate with each other. Personal letters, e-mails and phone calls are examples of inter-personal communication.
Mass communication is communication referred to an indefinite number of people spread over a large geographical area. Radio, television, cinema, newspapers and magazines, and Internet, are examples of mass communication.
India’s postal service is the largest of its kind in the world where the services are provided by the Department of Posts of the Government of India. The Indian postal service handles both letters and parcels. Post cards and envelopes are classified as first-class mail and are delivered on priority using both air and land transport.
Packets of books, and registered newspapers and periodicals are classified as second-class mail, and are delivered using surface transport like roadways, railways and ships.
The Indian postal service has introduced six channels for quicker delivery of letters in large town and cities, called the Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
The telecom network in India is the largest in Asia, with about 37,565 telephone exchanges spread all over the country. All the urban centres and over two-thirds of Indian villages are now connected with subscriber trunk dialling, or STD facility.
The Government of India has made provisions for 24-hour STD facility in every village of India. A uniform rate of STD calls from anywhere in India is possible due to the integration of our space and communication technology development programs.
Radio, television, cinema, books, newspapers,
magazines and the Internet serve the dual purpose of providing entertainment
and information to the masses. The national Indian radio broadcaster is
Akashwani or All India Radio.
Akashwani broadcasts a variety of programmes in regional languages all over India. The national Indian television broadcaster Doordarshan is one of the largest networks in the world. Doordarshan broadcasts a variety of entertainment, news and information, sports and educational programmes for all age groups.
Akashwani broadcasts a variety of programmes in regional languages all over India. The national Indian television broadcaster Doordarshan is one of the largest networks in the world. Doordarshan broadcasts a variety of entertainment, news and information, sports and educational programmes for all age groups.
Periodicals are publications like newspapers
and magazines published at regular intervals, from daily to weekly to monthly
to yearly. Daily newspapers in India are published in more than 100 languages
and local dialects. Hindi has the largest share of newspaper publication,
followed by English and Urdu.
The Indian film industry is the largest producers of feature films in the world and also produces short films and video films.
The Central Board of Film Certification, more commonly known as the censor board, certifies all Indian and foreign films before they can be released in India.
The Indian film industry is the largest producers of feature films in the world and also produces short films and video films.
The Central Board of Film Certification, more commonly known as the censor board, certifies all Indian and foreign films before they can be released in India.
International Trade and Tourism
The exchange of goods between people,
companies, states or countries is called trade. The trade within a locality or
between towns or villages of a state is called local trade. The trade between
two states is called state-level trade. The trade between two countries is
called international trade.
International trade is the measure of the health of a country’s economy and has two components. The goods purchased from other countries are called imports while the goods sold to other countries are called exports. The difference between the exports and imports of a country is called its balance of trade.
When the value of the exports of a country is more than the value of its imports, the country is said to have a favourable balance of trade. When the value of the imports of a country is more than the value of its exports, the country is said to have an unfavourable balance of trade.
The major products showing a rising trend in exports from India are agriculture and allied products, ores and minerals, gems and jewellery, chemicals and allied products, engineering goods and petroleum products.
The main categories of products imported into India are petroleum and petroleum products, pearls and gemstones, inorganic chemicals, coal, coke and briquettes and machinery. The bulk imports group accounts for around 39% of the total imports by India and includes fertilisers, cereals, edible oils and newsprint. India is a leading software producing country and generates large amounts of foreign exchange through the export of information technology.
Tourism is an important form of international trade. The Indian tourism industry employs around 15 million people to take care of around 2.6 million foreign tourists who visit India every year. Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism.
Tourism not only promotes national integration, it also gives tremendous boost to local handicraft industries and helps foreign tourists to understand and appreciate our cultural heritage.
International trade is the measure of the health of a country’s economy and has two components. The goods purchased from other countries are called imports while the goods sold to other countries are called exports. The difference between the exports and imports of a country is called its balance of trade.
When the value of the exports of a country is more than the value of its imports, the country is said to have a favourable balance of trade. When the value of the imports of a country is more than the value of its exports, the country is said to have an unfavourable balance of trade.
The major products showing a rising trend in exports from India are agriculture and allied products, ores and minerals, gems and jewellery, chemicals and allied products, engineering goods and petroleum products.
The main categories of products imported into India are petroleum and petroleum products, pearls and gemstones, inorganic chemicals, coal, coke and briquettes and machinery. The bulk imports group accounts for around 39% of the total imports by India and includes fertilisers, cereals, edible oils and newsprint. India is a leading software producing country and generates large amounts of foreign exchange through the export of information technology.
Tourism is an important form of international trade. The Indian tourism industry employs around 15 million people to take care of around 2.6 million foreign tourists who visit India every year. Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism.
Tourism not only promotes national integration, it also gives tremendous boost to local handicraft industries and helps foreign tourists to understand and appreciate our cultural heritage.
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