The Rise of
Nationalism in Europe
Nationalism is a sense of identity with the
nation. Many European nations experienced heightened periods of nationalism in
the 19th century.
Nationalism in Europe can be traced back to the decline of feudalism and the beginning of the Renaissance. The renaissance in Europe fostered new political ideas.
The concepts of liberty, equality, Fraternity and nationalism dominated the social and political scene of Europe in the 19th century.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe.
Utopian vision refers to a vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.
Absolutism refers to a system of rule with a lot of uncontrolled power an oppressive monarchial government.
A plebiscite is a direct vote by which the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.
The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
Nationalism in Europe can be traced back to the decline of feudalism and the beginning of the Renaissance. The renaissance in Europe fostered new political ideas.
The concepts of liberty, equality, Fraternity and nationalism dominated the social and political scene of Europe in the 19th century.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe.
Utopian vision refers to a vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.
Absolutism refers to a system of rule with a lot of uncontrolled power an oppressive monarchial government.
A plebiscite is a direct vote by which the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.
The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
French
Revolution
The French Revolution in 1789 was an
influential event that marked the age of revolutions in Europe. The major
outcome of the revolution was the formation of a constitutional monarchy and a
sizeable reduction in the royal and feudal privileges.
It paved the way for the achievement of bigger goals of national identity and national pride, which can be aptly called nationalism.
The revolutionaries referred to France as la patrie or the fatherland, where all citizens, known as le citoyen, enjoyed equal rights under the constitution. The revolutionaries tried to establish a collective French identity for the people by adopting French flag, composing nationalistic songs and hymns, discouraging the use of regional dialects and adopting French as the common language of France.
The French Revolution had its impact on the administration as well.
It paved the way for the achievement of bigger goals of national identity and national pride, which can be aptly called nationalism.
The revolutionaries referred to France as la patrie or the fatherland, where all citizens, known as le citoyen, enjoyed equal rights under the constitution. The revolutionaries tried to establish a collective French identity for the people by adopting French flag, composing nationalistic songs and hymns, discouraging the use of regional dialects and adopting French as the common language of France.
The French Revolution had its impact on the administration as well.
A body of active citizens, elected the Estates
General and renamed it the National Assembly.
A centralised administrative system was
created formulating uniform laws for all French citizens.
All internal custom duties and dues were
abolished.
A uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted.
The metric system was founded by France in 1791. The French revolutionaries also took it upon themselves to help other European countries to overcome autocracy and form nations. The French armies were welcomed by European countries like Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in the 1790s.
After the French Revolution emerged a famous historic personality and warrior, Napoleon Bonaparte. He introduced several effective administrative changes like the civil code of 1804 introduced by Napoleon also known as the Napoleonic code.
As per this code:
The privileges enjoyed by the noblemen and
clergy on the basis of birth were abolished.
Equality before law and the right to property
was secured.
The feudal system was abolished and the
peasants were freed from serfdom and the payment of dues to the manor owner.
The businessmen and small producers of goods
felt that uniform laws, standardised weights and a common national currency
could facilitate free trade across Europe.
Guild restrictions were removed and transport
and communication systems were improved.
The countries under the French rule soon realised that their political freedom that had been lost.
Higher taxes, forced enrolment of people into the French army and censorship overshadowed the positive administrative changes brought about by Napoleon, and led to his downfall.
Advent
of Liberalism in Europe
During the mid-18th century, Europe was divided into
several small kingdoms and principalities. The concept of nation states did not
exist at all. People with diverse ethnic groups lived in eastern and central
Europe.
The prominent empires in Europe were the autocratic Ottoman Empire that ruled over eastern and central Europe, and Greece and the Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary. People residing in the Habsburg Empire spoke different dialects and did not share a collective past. The difference in cultural background and the desire to use the ideas of the French Revolution led people towards a common goal –nationalism. During the 19th century, the landed aristocracy was a small but influential class in Europe and dominated both the social and political spheres.
Members of this class, in Europe, were connected to each other because of their similar way of life and inter-marriages. They owned large estates in the country side and town houses.
French was a common language spoken by them for diplomacy and high society. A majority of the European population was made up of peasants and serfs. In western Europe, most of the land was tilled by tenants and small owners, while in central and eastern Europe, estates were cultivated by serfs. With industrialisation in the late 18th and 19th centuries, new social groups came into existence i.e. the working class and the middle class.
The middle class had a free-thinking liberal mindset and the ideas of nationalism led them towards bridging the gap between aristocracy and other classes. They wanted to end the autocratic rule and form a national government of the people. The word liberalism traces its roots to the Latin word ‘liber,’ meaning free. The concept of liberalism was born in the middle class.
The middle class believed in the need for freedom and equality of all individuals before law. Although liberalism popularised the idea of a people’s government, the right to vote or suffrage was not extended to all citizens. In France, women were given the status of a minor and subjugated to the authority of men.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organised protests and movements demanding equal rights. Liberalism implied freedom of markets, and free movement of goods and capital. The Napoleonic Code, though revolutionary for its time, was unable to address the growing needs of the industrialists.
In 1834, a customs union, or ‘Zollverein,’ was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. This union eliminated tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over 30, to 2. A railway network was initiated, which enhanced mobility and communication between the economies.
The prominent empires in Europe were the autocratic Ottoman Empire that ruled over eastern and central Europe, and Greece and the Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary. People residing in the Habsburg Empire spoke different dialects and did not share a collective past. The difference in cultural background and the desire to use the ideas of the French Revolution led people towards a common goal –nationalism. During the 19th century, the landed aristocracy was a small but influential class in Europe and dominated both the social and political spheres.
Members of this class, in Europe, were connected to each other because of their similar way of life and inter-marriages. They owned large estates in the country side and town houses.
French was a common language spoken by them for diplomacy and high society. A majority of the European population was made up of peasants and serfs. In western Europe, most of the land was tilled by tenants and small owners, while in central and eastern Europe, estates were cultivated by serfs. With industrialisation in the late 18th and 19th centuries, new social groups came into existence i.e. the working class and the middle class.
The middle class had a free-thinking liberal mindset and the ideas of nationalism led them towards bridging the gap between aristocracy and other classes. They wanted to end the autocratic rule and form a national government of the people. The word liberalism traces its roots to the Latin word ‘liber,’ meaning free. The concept of liberalism was born in the middle class.
The middle class believed in the need for freedom and equality of all individuals before law. Although liberalism popularised the idea of a people’s government, the right to vote or suffrage was not extended to all citizens. In France, women were given the status of a minor and subjugated to the authority of men.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organised protests and movements demanding equal rights. Liberalism implied freedom of markets, and free movement of goods and capital. The Napoleonic Code, though revolutionary for its time, was unable to address the growing needs of the industrialists.
In 1834, a customs union, or ‘Zollverein,’ was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. This union eliminated tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over 30, to 2. A railway network was initiated, which enhanced mobility and communication between the economies.
Rise
of Conservatism and Revolutionaries
The middle class believed in freedom and
equality of all individuals before law. Liberalism was used by to end
aristocracy and clerical privileges. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in
1815, the European government adopted the idea of conservatism.
Conservatism was a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development than quick change.
Conservatives firmly believed that the aristocratic monarchies of Europe could gain a lot from a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom. In 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon, the representatives of European powers, namely Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia, met at Vienna. This meeting is also known as the Treaty or Congress of Vienna. The chief architect and host of this treaty was the Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich.
The purpose of this treaty was to undo all the territorial changes taken place during the Napoleonic wars and create a new conservative order in Europe.
Conservatism was a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development than quick change.
Conservatives firmly believed that the aristocratic monarchies of Europe could gain a lot from a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom. In 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon, the representatives of European powers, namely Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia, met at Vienna. This meeting is also known as the Treaty or Congress of Vienna. The chief architect and host of this treaty was the Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich.
The purpose of this treaty was to undo all the territorial changes taken place during the Napoleonic wars and create a new conservative order in Europe.
The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
France lost most of the territories it had
gained during Napoleon’s time. To prevent the expansion of France in the
future, certain states were set up along the boundaries of France.
The German confederation of 39 states set up
by Napoleon was not touched at all during this division.
The kingdom of the Netherlands, including
Belgium, was set up in the north of France.
Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south of
France.
Russia was given a part of Poland, while
Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
The conservative regimes set up through the treaty of Vienna in 1815 were autocratic in nature. They tried to curb the freedom of expression and imposed censorship laws on newspapers, books, plays and songs as they championed freedom. The liberals were not happy with the autocratic ways of the conservatives and raised their voice against the censorship of the press and the autocratic monarchical structures.
After 1815, several liberals began working in secret societies all over Europe to propagate their views and train revolutionaries. Revolutionaries were seen as a threat to the restored monarchies, and hence, were repressed.
Giuseppe Mazzini, a famous Italian revolutionary was born in 1807 in Genoa. He was part of a secret society called Carbonari and founded two underground societies called Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne.
In 1831, Mazzini was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria. Mazzini believed in the unification of the small kingdoms and principalities in Italy. These societies were joined by like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states
Age
of Revolutions [1830 To 1848]
The period between 1830 and 1848 was marked by
a lot of tensions and turmoil in Europe. Europe had witnessed the dramatic rise
of two philosophies, liberalism and conservatism. The liberal nationalists or
the educated middle class planned ways to overthrow monarchy and bring in a
government of the people. Europe hence saw a series of revolutions in Italy,
Germany, Poland, Turkey and Ireland.
In 1821 in the Greek war of independence, the Greeks began a nationalist movement. Several poets (Lord Byron) and artists supported the Greek war against the Ottoman Empire. After the war, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed in 1832 and recognized Greece as an independent nation.
In 1830 the Bourbon dynasty, restored in 1815 during the conservatives’ reaction, was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. The French revolution of 1830 is also known as the July Revolution.
In the 19th century, art, culture and literature helped in instilling the feeling of nationalism and also infusing the idea of a nation. After the French revolution, there was rise of a literary and cultural movement called romanticism, which sought to develop nationalist sentiment. This national sentiment was mobilised by artists by using the common language, or vernacular, and popular folk arts that people understood and identified with.
Writers, poets, painters and musicians of the romantic era stressed on individualism, nationalism, feeling, imagination and emotion as opposed to reason and science.
German romantic philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder stressed that true German culture could be found in folklore and folk art, of the common people. In Poland, nationalist feelings were kept alive through music and language.
The Grimm brothers’ fairy tales, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in Germany. They collected German folktales and popularized German.
The years after 1830 were marked by a lot of anarchy and chaos. Europe witnessed the worst period of hunger and hardship. Bad harvest and a rise in food prices added to people’s woes.
In the first half of the 19th century, the population of Europe had increased a lot. This led to unemployment. Many people migrated from the rural areas to the growing slums in the cities.
Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods in England. In certain regions of Europe, aristocracy and feudalism still prevailed. In 1845 the Silesian weavers revolted against their contractors. In France, food shortage led to the peasants’ uprising in 1848.
In 1821 in the Greek war of independence, the Greeks began a nationalist movement. Several poets (Lord Byron) and artists supported the Greek war against the Ottoman Empire. After the war, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed in 1832 and recognized Greece as an independent nation.
In 1830 the Bourbon dynasty, restored in 1815 during the conservatives’ reaction, was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. The French revolution of 1830 is also known as the July Revolution.
In the 19th century, art, culture and literature helped in instilling the feeling of nationalism and also infusing the idea of a nation. After the French revolution, there was rise of a literary and cultural movement called romanticism, which sought to develop nationalist sentiment. This national sentiment was mobilised by artists by using the common language, or vernacular, and popular folk arts that people understood and identified with.
Writers, poets, painters and musicians of the romantic era stressed on individualism, nationalism, feeling, imagination and emotion as opposed to reason and science.
German romantic philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder stressed that true German culture could be found in folklore and folk art, of the common people. In Poland, nationalist feelings were kept alive through music and language.
The Grimm brothers’ fairy tales, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in Germany. They collected German folktales and popularized German.
The years after 1830 were marked by a lot of anarchy and chaos. Europe witnessed the worst period of hunger and hardship. Bad harvest and a rise in food prices added to people’s woes.
In the first half of the 19th century, the population of Europe had increased a lot. This led to unemployment. Many people migrated from the rural areas to the growing slums in the cities.
Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods in England. In certain regions of Europe, aristocracy and feudalism still prevailed. In 1845 the Silesian weavers revolted against their contractors. In France, food shortage led to the peasants’ uprising in 1848.
Revolutions
of Liberals and Women
The history of Europe between 1830 and 1848 is
lined with many revolts and uprisings. An ideology is a system of ideas
reflecting a particular social and political vision. In Germany, Italy,
Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle
class began demanding a constitution, and national unification.
In Germany, many political associations from the middle and working class came together in Frankfurt to vote for an All-German National Assembly. On 18th May, 1948, the Frankfurt Parliament was convened in the Church of Saint Paul by members elected from various political associations.
The members drafted a constitution based on the idea of a monarchy subject to parliament. When the members requested Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, to accept the crown, he declined. The middle class dominated the parliament and did not accept the demands of artisans and peasants. The aristocracy, powered by the army, got the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded.
Though the conservatives managed to suppress liberal movements, they could not establish the old order. The monarchs realised that the demands of liberals could no longer be ignored. After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of central and eastern Europe began to incorporate changes that had already taken place in western Europe.
Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in the Habsburg Empire and Russia. The liberal revolutionaries exhibited narrow mindedness in their attitude towards women. Since the French Revolution, women played an active role in revolts and popular movements but they never got their due. They founded newspapers and political associations, but suffrage and political rights still eluded them.
In the Frankfurt Parliament women merely acted as spectators in the upper left gallery. Famous political activist Louise Otto-Peters wrote in the first editorial of her newspaper that liberty, without the liberty of women, benefited only one half of humanity, which was men. Carl Welcker, a member of the Frankfurt Parliament, had tremendous reservation against equal rights for women, and he ridiculed their demands as being against nature.
This awareness of women’s rights based on political and social equality of genders is also known as feminism.
In Germany, many political associations from the middle and working class came together in Frankfurt to vote for an All-German National Assembly. On 18th May, 1948, the Frankfurt Parliament was convened in the Church of Saint Paul by members elected from various political associations.
The members drafted a constitution based on the idea of a monarchy subject to parliament. When the members requested Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, to accept the crown, he declined. The middle class dominated the parliament and did not accept the demands of artisans and peasants. The aristocracy, powered by the army, got the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded.
Though the conservatives managed to suppress liberal movements, they could not establish the old order. The monarchs realised that the demands of liberals could no longer be ignored. After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of central and eastern Europe began to incorporate changes that had already taken place in western Europe.
Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in the Habsburg Empire and Russia. The liberal revolutionaries exhibited narrow mindedness in their attitude towards women. Since the French Revolution, women played an active role in revolts and popular movements but they never got their due. They founded newspapers and political associations, but suffrage and political rights still eluded them.
In the Frankfurt Parliament women merely acted as spectators in the upper left gallery. Famous political activist Louise Otto-Peters wrote in the first editorial of her newspaper that liberty, without the liberty of women, benefited only one half of humanity, which was men. Carl Welcker, a member of the Frankfurt Parliament, had tremendous reservation against equal rights for women, and he ridiculed their demands as being against nature.
This awareness of women’s rights based on political and social equality of genders is also known as feminism.
Nation
States - Germany, Italy and Britain
After 1848, the conservatives began to use
nationalist ideas to strengthen the monarchy. The unification of Italy and
Germany came about through this process.
In 1848, the German middle class - professionals, businessmen, wealthy artists and artisans - joined to vote for an all-German National Assembly. They convened at the Frankfurt Parliament. The members of the parliament offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm the fourth, King of Prussia, who rejected.
After the Frankfurt Parliament, Prussia became the leader of German unification. The man who played a crucial role in the unification was the Chief Minister of Prussia, Otto Von Bismarck. Bismarck was supported by the bureaucracy and the army. For German unification, three wars were fought over seven years - between 1864 and 1870 with Denmark, France and Austria.
On 18th January, 1871, the King of Prussia, Kaiser William the first, was proclaimed the German Emperor at the Mirror Hall in Versailles. In newly formed Germany a lot of emphasis was placed on modernising the currency, and the banking, legal and judicial systems.
During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Northern Italy was ruled by the Austrian part of the Habsburg Empire, Central Italy by the Pope, while the southern part and Parma by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Only one state, Sardinia Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
Mazzini was the leader of the Republican Party. He had formed secret societies like Young Italy to regenerate Italy by education. The rebellions staged by the revolutionaries in 1831 and 1848 failed. The responsibility of unifying Italy came to Victor Emmanuel the II, King of Sardinia Piedmont. The chief minister of Piedmont, Count Camillo di Cavour, helped the king in forming an alliance with France, and they defeated the Austrian in 1859.
Giuseppe Garibaldi played an important role in the unification of Italy. He joined the war along with his armed volunteers called the ‘Red Shirts’. In 1860, Garibaldi and his troops marched into Southern Italy and the kingdom of two Sicilies. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel the second was announced King of united Italy. In 1867, Garibaldi and his volunteers attacked the French troops stationed in the Papal states.
Britain has a different history of how it consolidated as a nation state without uprisings and revolutions. The British Isles was inhabited by ethnic English, Welsh, Scots and Irish. The English nation grew more in power and wealth, and it began to exert influence over the other nations of the island.
The concept of nation states, with England as the centre, came in 1688 after the parliament snatched power from the monarchy. In 1707, the Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain.
To ensure the growth of British identity, Scotland’s cultural and political institutions were suppressed. The British imposed control over Ireland as well. Ireland had two dominant groups, Catholics and Protestants. The English favoured the protestants, and the British helped them to dominate a largely catholic Ireland.
In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom after a failed Irish revolt. The symbols of new Britain were the English language, the Union Jack, and the British national anthem.
In 1848, the German middle class - professionals, businessmen, wealthy artists and artisans - joined to vote for an all-German National Assembly. They convened at the Frankfurt Parliament. The members of the parliament offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm the fourth, King of Prussia, who rejected.
After the Frankfurt Parliament, Prussia became the leader of German unification. The man who played a crucial role in the unification was the Chief Minister of Prussia, Otto Von Bismarck. Bismarck was supported by the bureaucracy and the army. For German unification, three wars were fought over seven years - between 1864 and 1870 with Denmark, France and Austria.
On 18th January, 1871, the King of Prussia, Kaiser William the first, was proclaimed the German Emperor at the Mirror Hall in Versailles. In newly formed Germany a lot of emphasis was placed on modernising the currency, and the banking, legal and judicial systems.
During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Northern Italy was ruled by the Austrian part of the Habsburg Empire, Central Italy by the Pope, while the southern part and Parma by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Only one state, Sardinia Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
Mazzini was the leader of the Republican Party. He had formed secret societies like Young Italy to regenerate Italy by education. The rebellions staged by the revolutionaries in 1831 and 1848 failed. The responsibility of unifying Italy came to Victor Emmanuel the II, King of Sardinia Piedmont. The chief minister of Piedmont, Count Camillo di Cavour, helped the king in forming an alliance with France, and they defeated the Austrian in 1859.
Giuseppe Garibaldi played an important role in the unification of Italy. He joined the war along with his armed volunteers called the ‘Red Shirts’. In 1860, Garibaldi and his troops marched into Southern Italy and the kingdom of two Sicilies. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel the second was announced King of united Italy. In 1867, Garibaldi and his volunteers attacked the French troops stationed in the Papal states.
Britain has a different history of how it consolidated as a nation state without uprisings and revolutions. The British Isles was inhabited by ethnic English, Welsh, Scots and Irish. The English nation grew more in power and wealth, and it began to exert influence over the other nations of the island.
The concept of nation states, with England as the centre, came in 1688 after the parliament snatched power from the monarchy. In 1707, the Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain.
To ensure the growth of British identity, Scotland’s cultural and political institutions were suppressed. The British imposed control over Ireland as well. Ireland had two dominant groups, Catholics and Protestants. The English favoured the protestants, and the British helped them to dominate a largely catholic Ireland.
In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom after a failed Irish revolt. The symbols of new Britain were the English language, the Union Jack, and the British national anthem.
Visualising
a Nation
A symbol is a visual image that represents
something other than itself. It may be a representation using an object,
picture, written word, sound or a particular mark.
During the 18th and the 19th centuries, several symbols were used by artists and revolutionaries to depict abstract concepts. These symbols were usually popular images from everyday life that uneducated masses could easily identify with.
During revolutions, artists represented a nation as a person. This personification gave life to an abstract concept like nation.
The way of expressing an abstract idea like freedom or liberty through a symbol that may be person or thing is known as allegory. An allegory has a literal and a symbolic meaning. In the nineteenth century, French artists used the female allegory to represent France. She was named Marianne, She symbolises reason, liberty and the ideals of the republic.
In Germany, the allegory for the nation was again a female figure called Germania. A Broken chain represented abolition of slavery.
A fasces or a bundle of rods with an axe in the middle was used to symbolize strength in unity. The red Phrygian cap signified freedom of a slave. It was also known as the liberty cap. French people wore these caps a few days before the storming of the Bastille.
During the 18th and the 19th centuries, several symbols were used by artists and revolutionaries to depict abstract concepts. These symbols were usually popular images from everyday life that uneducated masses could easily identify with.
During revolutions, artists represented a nation as a person. This personification gave life to an abstract concept like nation.
The way of expressing an abstract idea like freedom or liberty through a symbol that may be person or thing is known as allegory. An allegory has a literal and a symbolic meaning. In the nineteenth century, French artists used the female allegory to represent France. She was named Marianne, She symbolises reason, liberty and the ideals of the republic.
In Germany, the allegory for the nation was again a female figure called Germania. A Broken chain represented abolition of slavery.
A fasces or a bundle of rods with an axe in the middle was used to symbolize strength in unity. The red Phrygian cap signified freedom of a slave. It was also known as the liberty cap. French people wore these caps a few days before the storming of the Bastille.
Nationalism
and Imperialism
Through the 18th and the mid-19th century,
Europe was marked by a lot of chaos and turmoil. After 1871, there was a
significant change in the concept of nationalism in Europe.
Nationalist groups in Europe had become increasingly incompatible with each other and were constantly in conflict. The major European powers, namely Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary began taking advantage of nationalism in Europe, to materialise their aims for imperialism.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending the rule and the authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies.
The European powers sighted the much-disturbed Balkan region to fulfil their imperialist goals. The Balkans region consisted of the following countries of our times - Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
People of different ethnicities and culture lived in the Balkans and were collectively known as Slavs. The spread of romantic nationalism and the downfall of the Ottoman Empire had made the Balkans peninsula very tense and volatile. The Ottoman Empire had not been able to strengthen itself even after having adopted reforms and modern methods.
The European subjects had begun to break away from the Ottoman Empire and had started declaring themselves independent. The Balkans claimed independence and a separate political identity based on nationality.
The Balkans argued that they had been dominated by foreign countries earlier so now they wanted to break away from the foreign rule and gain independence. The Balkans was jealous of each other and wanted to expand control over each other’s territories.
Intensifying the tension further was the rivalry between the European powers over trade, colonies, and naval and military strength. To fulfil these aims, Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary wanted to extend their control over the already disturbed Balkan region. The rivalry caused many wars and culminated in the First World War.
Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. Later, the countries colonised by the European powers in the 19th century began to overthrow their imperial rule. Many countries struggled for the formation of nation states, and each country was inspired by a sense of collective national unity.
Every country developed its own specific nationalism; there was one thing in common - the idea of organising societies as nation states.
Nationalist groups in Europe had become increasingly incompatible with each other and were constantly in conflict. The major European powers, namely Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary began taking advantage of nationalism in Europe, to materialise their aims for imperialism.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending the rule and the authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies.
The European powers sighted the much-disturbed Balkan region to fulfil their imperialist goals. The Balkans region consisted of the following countries of our times - Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
People of different ethnicities and culture lived in the Balkans and were collectively known as Slavs. The spread of romantic nationalism and the downfall of the Ottoman Empire had made the Balkans peninsula very tense and volatile. The Ottoman Empire had not been able to strengthen itself even after having adopted reforms and modern methods.
The European subjects had begun to break away from the Ottoman Empire and had started declaring themselves independent. The Balkans claimed independence and a separate political identity based on nationality.
The Balkans argued that they had been dominated by foreign countries earlier so now they wanted to break away from the foreign rule and gain independence. The Balkans was jealous of each other and wanted to expand control over each other’s territories.
Intensifying the tension further was the rivalry between the European powers over trade, colonies, and naval and military strength. To fulfil these aims, Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary wanted to extend their control over the already disturbed Balkan region. The rivalry caused many wars and culminated in the First World War.
Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. Later, the countries colonised by the European powers in the 19th century began to overthrow their imperial rule. Many countries struggled for the formation of nation states, and each country was inspired by a sense of collective national unity.
Every country developed its own specific nationalism; there was one thing in common - the idea of organising societies as nation states.
The Nationalist
Movement in Indo-China
Beginning
of Colonialism in Vietnam
Colonialism is a process of building and
maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory and
exploiting it economically.
Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were referred to as Indo-China.
Trade had flourished in old Vietnam and it was linked with the maritime silk route. Silk Route refers to an interconnected network of trade routes that connects eastern southern and western Asia with the Mediterranean world, including North Africa and Europe.
The French arrived in Vietnam in 1858 and consolidated their hold over the northern region by mid-1880. Franco Indo-China was formed in 1887.
Writer and policy-maker, Paul Bernard believed that the prime motive behind acquiring colonies was to flourish business and make profits.
Vietnamese economy was predominantly based on rice and rubber plantations owned by the French and elites in Vietnam. Indentured labour or labour based on contract was used in these plantations from the mid-nineteenth century.
The French colonization and their growing dominance in the country created tremendous unrest in Vietnam and resulted in nationalist resistance.
Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were referred to as Indo-China.
Trade had flourished in old Vietnam and it was linked with the maritime silk route. Silk Route refers to an interconnected network of trade routes that connects eastern southern and western Asia with the Mediterranean world, including North Africa and Europe.
The French arrived in Vietnam in 1858 and consolidated their hold over the northern region by mid-1880. Franco Indo-China was formed in 1887.
Writer and policy-maker, Paul Bernard believed that the prime motive behind acquiring colonies was to flourish business and make profits.
Vietnamese economy was predominantly based on rice and rubber plantations owned by the French and elites in Vietnam. Indentured labour or labour based on contract was used in these plantations from the mid-nineteenth century.
The French colonization and their growing dominance in the country created tremendous unrest in Vietnam and resulted in nationalist resistance.
Civilising
Mission in Vietnam - Education
The French Colonialists believed in carrying
out a ‘civilising mission’ under the guise of modernising the colony and they
used education as tool to do so. This led to an erosion of cultural
beliefs, religion and tradition of Vietnam.
The French citizens living in Vietnam called Colons felt that educated Vietnamese could replace them as teachers, shopkeepers and policemen. The elite Vietnamese were very influenced by the Chinese culture. The traditional education system of Vietnam was dismantled and a new French education system was introduced.
The school textbooks glorified and justified the French colonial rule and portrayed Vietnamese people as primitive, and incapable of intellectual work. The Tonkin Free School, started in 1907 was to provide western education and ideas. The domination of French culture faced opposition and resistance in Vietnam.
As the number of Vietnamese teachers in lower classes increased, they began to question the text books. In 1926, a major protest took place in the Saigon Native Girl school.
Students came in conflict with the French as well as the elite. By the 1920s students formed various political parties such as the Party of Young Annan and published nationalist journals like the Annanese Student opposing the French domination.
The French citizens living in Vietnam called Colons felt that educated Vietnamese could replace them as teachers, shopkeepers and policemen. The elite Vietnamese were very influenced by the Chinese culture. The traditional education system of Vietnam was dismantled and a new French education system was introduced.
The school textbooks glorified and justified the French colonial rule and portrayed Vietnamese people as primitive, and incapable of intellectual work. The Tonkin Free School, started in 1907 was to provide western education and ideas. The domination of French culture faced opposition and resistance in Vietnam.
As the number of Vietnamese teachers in lower classes increased, they began to question the text books. In 1926, a major protest took place in the Saigon Native Girl school.
Students came in conflict with the French as well as the elite. By the 1920s students formed various political parties such as the Party of Young Annan and published nationalist journals like the Annanese Student opposing the French domination.
Health
and Hygiene - Colony Versus Empire
The rat hunt and bubonic plague of 1903 was a
clear indication of the failure in the French civilising mission. It also
presented a unique way for the Vietnamese to counter colonialism in day- to
-day life. Bubonic plague is a contagious disease, which often proves fatal and
can also cause an epidemic.
In 1903, the bubonic plague broke out in Hanoi and people manipulated the situation in a different way to exploit French colonisers.
Modernizing Hanoi, one of the main cities of Vietnam came first on their agenda. The French part of Hanoi was beautified with wide avenues and a well laid out sewer system. The native quarter was completely ignored with no modern hygienic facilities.
The sewers in the French part of the city provided perfect conditions for rats to breed in and easy movement throughout the city. Hanoi hence became a favourable place for the outbreak of plague.
To combat the rat menace, a rat hunt was started in 1902. While catching rats in dirty sewers, the Vietnamese realised the concept of collective bargaining.
The bubonic plague continued to affect Hanoi during 1903 and the subsequent years. The Rat Hunt marked the defeat of French colonisers and an utter failure of their civilising mission.
In 1903, the bubonic plague broke out in Hanoi and people manipulated the situation in a different way to exploit French colonisers.
Modernizing Hanoi, one of the main cities of Vietnam came first on their agenda. The French part of Hanoi was beautified with wide avenues and a well laid out sewer system. The native quarter was completely ignored with no modern hygienic facilities.
The sewers in the French part of the city provided perfect conditions for rats to breed in and easy movement throughout the city. Hanoi hence became a favourable place for the outbreak of plague.
To combat the rat menace, a rat hunt was started in 1902. While catching rats in dirty sewers, the Vietnamese realised the concept of collective bargaining.
The bubonic plague continued to affect Hanoi during 1903 and the subsequent years. The Rat Hunt marked the defeat of French colonisers and an utter failure of their civilising mission.
Religion
and Anti Colonialism
Vietnam was a place for many religions such as
Confucianism, Buddhism and local practices. The elite in Vietnam were educated
in Chinese and Confucianism while the peasantry believed in a variety of
syncretic traditions that combined Buddhism and local beliefs.
The French missionaries had introduced Christianity in Vietnam.
The 18th century was marked by significant religious movements against the cultural attack of the French. One such movement was the Scholars Revolt of 1868 and was a protest against French rule and the spread of Christianity.
Hoa Hao was one such movement against the French which started in 1939 and became a rage in the Mekong Delta. The man behind this movement was Huynh Phu So.
Huynh Phu So was sent to a mental asylum insane and later was exiled with his followers to concentration camps. Concentration camps refer to prisons where people were detained without due process of law.
Overall, religious movements had a contradictory relationship with mainstream nationalism. Religious movements were certainly successful in provoking anti-imperialist sentiments.
The French missionaries had introduced Christianity in Vietnam.
The 18th century was marked by significant religious movements against the cultural attack of the French. One such movement was the Scholars Revolt of 1868 and was a protest against French rule and the spread of Christianity.
Hoa Hao was one such movement against the French which started in 1939 and became a rage in the Mekong Delta. The man behind this movement was Huynh Phu So.
Huynh Phu So was sent to a mental asylum insane and later was exiled with his followers to concentration camps. Concentration camps refer to prisons where people were detained without due process of law.
Overall, religious movements had a contradictory relationship with mainstream nationalism. Religious movements were certainly successful in provoking anti-imperialist sentiments.
French
Vision of Modernisation - A Complete Failure
Vietnamese nationalism was marked by the
opposition of colonialism in all spheres of life. One group of intellectuals
were in favour of strengthening Vietnamese traditions in order to resist
western domination. The other group felt that Vietnam could imbibe the best
from the west even while opposing their domination.
A famous Confucian nationalist Phan Boi Chau formed the Revolutionary Society, Duy Tan Hoi in 1903. In 1905, a Chinese Reformer Liang Qichao guided Chau in writing his influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam.
However, Phan Chu Trinh was one nationalist who differed in opinion with Phan Boi Chau. Phan Chu Trinh accepted the French revolutionary ideal of liberty but accused the French for not abiding by the ideal.
Japan and China became the centre for revolutionaries to build their network comprising other Asian revolutionaries.
In 1907and 1908 students visited Japan to get modern education. They wanted help from Japan to overthrow the French in Vietnam and re-establish the deposed Nguyen dynasty.
In 1911, the Chinese monarchy was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen and a Republic was set up. The objective of the revolutionaries was to establish a Democratic republic in Vietnam and not a constitutional monarchy.
A famous Confucian nationalist Phan Boi Chau formed the Revolutionary Society, Duy Tan Hoi in 1903. In 1905, a Chinese Reformer Liang Qichao guided Chau in writing his influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam.
However, Phan Chu Trinh was one nationalist who differed in opinion with Phan Boi Chau. Phan Chu Trinh accepted the French revolutionary ideal of liberty but accused the French for not abiding by the ideal.
Japan and China became the centre for revolutionaries to build their network comprising other Asian revolutionaries.
In 1907and 1908 students visited Japan to get modern education. They wanted help from Japan to overthrow the French in Vietnam and re-establish the deposed Nguyen dynasty.
In 1911, the Chinese monarchy was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen and a Republic was set up. The objective of the revolutionaries was to establish a Democratic republic in Vietnam and not a constitutional monarchy.
Vietnamese
Nationalism - In the Light of Communism
In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh a famous Vietnamese
communist revolutionary established the Vietnamese Communist party also known
as Vietnam Cong San Dang.
Communism is a political ideology that believes in establishment of equal and class less society. Common ownership and control of means of production are important facets of a communist state.
In 1940, Japan occupied Vietnam in order to make imperial gains in Southeast Asia. The League for the Independence of Vietnam also known as the Vietminh fought with Japan and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945.
Hence, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became its Chairman. The battle of Dien Bien Phu convinced the Vietnamese of their ability to fight and strategic planning.
After the French defeat, the peace negotiations took place in Geneva and Vietnam was divided into two parts; North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the communists took control of North Vietnam while Bao Dai’s regime was to look after South Vietnam.
In 1945, the declaration of Independence of Vietnam was adopted, inspired by the Declaration of Independence of United States and of France. In South Vietnam the Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem, an authoritarian.
The opposition got united as the National Liberation Front or NLF and resisted Ngo Dinh Diem dictatorial rule. NLF fought for the unification of the country with the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north Vietnam.
The rise of communism in Vietnam and the adjoining areas threatened the US. In order to intervene in the developing situation the US sent its troops to Vietnam.
Communism is a political ideology that believes in establishment of equal and class less society. Common ownership and control of means of production are important facets of a communist state.
In 1940, Japan occupied Vietnam in order to make imperial gains in Southeast Asia. The League for the Independence of Vietnam also known as the Vietminh fought with Japan and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945.
Hence, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became its Chairman. The battle of Dien Bien Phu convinced the Vietnamese of their ability to fight and strategic planning.
After the French defeat, the peace negotiations took place in Geneva and Vietnam was divided into two parts; North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the communists took control of North Vietnam while Bao Dai’s regime was to look after South Vietnam.
In 1945, the declaration of Independence of Vietnam was adopted, inspired by the Declaration of Independence of United States and of France. In South Vietnam the Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem, an authoritarian.
The opposition got united as the National Liberation Front or NLF and resisted Ngo Dinh Diem dictatorial rule. NLF fought for the unification of the country with the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north Vietnam.
The rise of communism in Vietnam and the adjoining areas threatened the US. In order to intervene in the developing situation the US sent its troops to Vietnam.
Entry
of the US into the Vietnam War
Communism was on a rise in North Vietnam under
the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. North Vietnam helped the NLF of South Vietnam to
overthrow the dictatorial rule of Ngo Dihn Diem. They also decided to overlook
the terms of the Geneva Conference and unify Vietnam.
The spread of Communism was viewed as a potential threat by the capitalist nations especially the US. US sent in their troops to South Vietnam to intervene and this was the start of the catastrophic US Vietnam war.
Chemical weapons like B52s Agent Orange, Napalm and Phosphorous Bombs were used which wiped out villages and razed down forests. The US decision to intervene in Vietnam was criticised vehemently back home.
Despite the advanced technology and excellent medical facilities, the US suffered a lot of causalities in the war. The US had completely underestimated the strength and determination of nationalist Vietnamese people.
The Vietnamese used their limited resources to gain maximum advantage over the US. The Ho Chin Minh Trail is a perfect example of Vietnamese enterprise. This trail was a massive network of footpaths and roads, used to transport men and materials from North to South Vietnam.
The US regularly bombed the trail to disrupt supplies, but the trail was managed efficiently and it was rebuilt quickly. Vietnam bravely combated the US attack and got freedom in 1975.
The spread of Communism was viewed as a potential threat by the capitalist nations especially the US. US sent in their troops to South Vietnam to intervene and this was the start of the catastrophic US Vietnam war.
Chemical weapons like B52s Agent Orange, Napalm and Phosphorous Bombs were used which wiped out villages and razed down forests. The US decision to intervene in Vietnam was criticised vehemently back home.
Despite the advanced technology and excellent medical facilities, the US suffered a lot of causalities in the war. The US had completely underestimated the strength and determination of nationalist Vietnamese people.
The Vietnamese used their limited resources to gain maximum advantage over the US. The Ho Chin Minh Trail is a perfect example of Vietnamese enterprise. This trail was a massive network of footpaths and roads, used to transport men and materials from North to South Vietnam.
The US regularly bombed the trail to disrupt supplies, but the trail was managed efficiently and it was rebuilt quickly. Vietnam bravely combated the US attack and got freedom in 1975.
Contribution
of Women and the End of Vietnam War
Vietnamese women made significant
contributions to nationalist causes since ancient times. Vietnamese women
played a crucial role during the war and in other anti-imperialist movements in
Vietnam.
Trung Sisters and Trieu Au are famous women warriors of the ancient times. Popular literature and thinkers celebrated the women who broke away from the traditional social mould.
Another celebrated woman from the past was Trieu Au from third century CE who organised a large army and opposed the Chinese rule.
Women as workers carrying a rifle in one hand and hammer in the other were projected as selfless fighters working for the cause of nation.
In 1965-1975 women formed seventy to 80% of the total youth workers on the Ho Chi Minh trail. They carried thousands of kilograms of cargo weapons and food and guarded key points on the trail. They also built airstrips and neutralised numerous bombs.
The war received a lot of criticism around the world and in US as numerous people had been killed on both sides. Writers such as Mary McCarthy and actor Jane Fonda visited Vietnam and brought the Vietnamese struggle to the notice of the international community.
Widespread criticism of war and US Government policies paved the way for negotiations. In July 1974 a peace settlement was signed in Paris. The North Liberation Front occupied the Presidential Palace in South Vietnam on 13th April 1975 and Vietnam got unified.
Trung Sisters and Trieu Au are famous women warriors of the ancient times. Popular literature and thinkers celebrated the women who broke away from the traditional social mould.
Another celebrated woman from the past was Trieu Au from third century CE who organised a large army and opposed the Chinese rule.
Women as workers carrying a rifle in one hand and hammer in the other were projected as selfless fighters working for the cause of nation.
In 1965-1975 women formed seventy to 80% of the total youth workers on the Ho Chi Minh trail. They carried thousands of kilograms of cargo weapons and food and guarded key points on the trail. They also built airstrips and neutralised numerous bombs.
The war received a lot of criticism around the world and in US as numerous people had been killed on both sides. Writers such as Mary McCarthy and actor Jane Fonda visited Vietnam and brought the Vietnamese struggle to the notice of the international community.
Widespread criticism of war and US Government policies paved the way for negotiations. In July 1974 a peace settlement was signed in Paris. The North Liberation Front occupied the Presidential Palace in South Vietnam on 13th April 1975 and Vietnam got unified.
The Nationalist Movement of India
The
Nationalist Movement of India - An Introduction
In India, the rise of nationalism was
intricately linked with the opposition of colonialism. The revolt or Sepoy
Mutiny of 1857 was the first war of Indian independence.
People realised that they were experiencing a common suffering under the oppressive British colonial rule. This understanding brought the different groups together in their anti-colonial struggle.
The event which proved instrumental in the history of the Indian Freedom Struggle was the First World War India was forced to participate in the First World War in which the British for increasing their defence expenditure levied new taxes on Indians.
Common people were the forced to enrol in the army to fight in the First World War.
During 1918 India was hit by crop failure and shortage of food grains followed by famines and outbreak of influenza.
This harsh social and political situation set the stage for the beginning of the nationalist struggle in India. The Indian freedom movement gained momentum with the coming of Mahatma Gandhi in 1915.
He had successfully tested novel ideas of non-violence and anti-colonial struggle in South Africa. He had fought for the civil He motivated diverse social groups to rise above petty differences of caste, creed, religion, region and work single-mindedly towards the common goal of freedom.
People realised that they were experiencing a common suffering under the oppressive British colonial rule. This understanding brought the different groups together in their anti-colonial struggle.
The event which proved instrumental in the history of the Indian Freedom Struggle was the First World War India was forced to participate in the First World War in which the British for increasing their defence expenditure levied new taxes on Indians.
Common people were the forced to enrol in the army to fight in the First World War.
During 1918 India was hit by crop failure and shortage of food grains followed by famines and outbreak of influenza.
This harsh social and political situation set the stage for the beginning of the nationalist struggle in India. The Indian freedom movement gained momentum with the coming of Mahatma Gandhi in 1915.
He had successfully tested novel ideas of non-violence and anti-colonial struggle in South Africa. He had fought for the civil He motivated diverse social groups to rise above petty differences of caste, creed, religion, region and work single-mindedly towards the common goal of freedom.
Satyagraha
- Ideals and Implementation
Mahatma Gandhi infused a new life into the
Indian Freedom Movement and had successfully used Satyagraha and non-violence
in South Africa.
Satyagraha literally means an appeal for truth and is passive resistance used powerfully to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor.
Mahatma Gandhi successfully organised Satyagraha Movements in different parts of India. Mahatma Gandhi used the concept of Satyagraha for mass mobilisation and political movements against the injustice of the government.
In 1916, Mahatma Gandhi visited the poor peasants of Champaran district in Bihar. The British used to force the peasants of Champaran to cultivate indigo instead of food crops.
The villages in Champaran were very unhygienic and affected by social evils like the pardah system and untouchability. Mahatma Gandhi started a drive to improve the infrastructure of villages in Champaran. He started a Satyagraha movement against the oppression of peasants.
In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi visited the Kheda district in Gujarat people of which were also stricken with poverty and social evils.
Mahatma Gandhi along with Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, garnered mass support and organised a Satyagraha against the tax burden.
Another Satyagaraha movement was organised by Mahatma Gandhi in Ahmedabad in 1918 to support the demands of the cotton mill workers.
Successful implementation of Satyagraha motivated the Indians and also paved the way for the other nationalist movements in future.
Satyagraha literally means an appeal for truth and is passive resistance used powerfully to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor.
Mahatma Gandhi successfully organised Satyagraha Movements in different parts of India. Mahatma Gandhi used the concept of Satyagraha for mass mobilisation and political movements against the injustice of the government.
In 1916, Mahatma Gandhi visited the poor peasants of Champaran district in Bihar. The British used to force the peasants of Champaran to cultivate indigo instead of food crops.
The villages in Champaran were very unhygienic and affected by social evils like the pardah system and untouchability. Mahatma Gandhi started a drive to improve the infrastructure of villages in Champaran. He started a Satyagraha movement against the oppression of peasants.
In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi visited the Kheda district in Gujarat people of which were also stricken with poverty and social evils.
Mahatma Gandhi along with Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, garnered mass support and organised a Satyagraha against the tax burden.
Another Satyagaraha movement was organised by Mahatma Gandhi in Ahmedabad in 1918 to support the demands of the cotton mill workers.
Successful implementation of Satyagraha motivated the Indians and also paved the way for the other nationalist movements in future.
Rowlatt
Act and Jallianwallah Bagh Massacre
The Satyagraha Movements by Mahatma Gandhi
achieved their desired objectives and were a
great success.
To control such movements, the British proposed the Rowlatt Act in 1919. The Rowlatt Act aimed to curb the political activities in the country and equipped the courts with the power to detain political prisoners without trial for two years.
Mahatma Gandhi opposed the Rowlatt Act by starting a peaceful Satyagraha. He suggested a Civil Disobedience beginning with a hartal on 6th April 1919.
The British were threatened that this mass movement could break all lines of communications in the country and so they decided to suppress the nationalists. Several local leaders were arrested and Mahatma Gandhi was prohibited from entering Delhi.
On 13th April 1919 several villagers had gathered at the Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar to attend a cattle fair on the occasion of Baisakhi. General Dyer blocked all the entry points to the ground and without any prior warning, opened fire on the hapless crowd.
The merciless firing continued for 10-15 minutes leaving hundreds of people including women and children dead and wounded.
The Jallianwalla Bagh massacre triggered many protests, strikes, and clashes with policemen and attacks on Government buildings, across North India. The British Government suppressed these protests and humiliated the Satyagrahis.
great success.
To control such movements, the British proposed the Rowlatt Act in 1919. The Rowlatt Act aimed to curb the political activities in the country and equipped the courts with the power to detain political prisoners without trial for two years.
Mahatma Gandhi opposed the Rowlatt Act by starting a peaceful Satyagraha. He suggested a Civil Disobedience beginning with a hartal on 6th April 1919.
The British were threatened that this mass movement could break all lines of communications in the country and so they decided to suppress the nationalists. Several local leaders were arrested and Mahatma Gandhi was prohibited from entering Delhi.
On 13th April 1919 several villagers had gathered at the Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar to attend a cattle fair on the occasion of Baisakhi. General Dyer blocked all the entry points to the ground and without any prior warning, opened fire on the hapless crowd.
The merciless firing continued for 10-15 minutes leaving hundreds of people including women and children dead and wounded.
The Jallianwalla Bagh massacre triggered many protests, strikes, and clashes with policemen and attacks on Government buildings, across North India. The British Government suppressed these protests and humiliated the Satyagrahis.
Launch
of Non-Cooperation Movement
Mahatma Gandhi in his book Hind Swaraj
suggested that if Indians resolved not to cooperate, the British rule would get
abolished. The fall off the British rule will pave the way for Swaraj or
self-governance.
In March 1919, the Ali brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali formed the Khilafat Committee in Bombay to garner support for the Turkish Khalifa. Mahatma Gandhi realised that Khilafat movement could be used to unite Muslims and Hindus for the common cause of a national movement.
He hence launched the Non-cooperation Movement in support of Khilafat. To gain maximum reach and success, Mahatma Gandhi proposed a stage by stage strategy implementation for the movement:
In March 1919, the Ali brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali formed the Khilafat Committee in Bombay to garner support for the Turkish Khalifa. Mahatma Gandhi realised that Khilafat movement could be used to unite Muslims and Hindus for the common cause of a national movement.
He hence launched the Non-cooperation Movement in support of Khilafat. To gain maximum reach and success, Mahatma Gandhi proposed a stage by stage strategy implementation for the movement:
The movement had to begin with a surrender of
titles, honours and honorary posts by people.
Planned to shun or boycott Civil Services,
Army, Police, British Courts and Legislative Assemblies, School and Colleges
and British goods.
The British goods were to be replaced by
domestic goods or Swadeshi to promote the native cottage industries.
In case of government suppression, Civil
Disobedience Movement will be launched Mobilization of popular support.
After a lot of debates the Non-Cooperation Movement was adopted by the Congress during the Nagpur conference in December 1920. Under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership Non- cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in full force.
Non-cooperation
Movement in Towns and Countryside
The Non-cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in
1920. Many diverse regional groups joined this movement to meet their specific
objectives. Many students, teachers and headmasters joined the movement.
Lawyers also gave up their legal practice and joined in.
People picketed the liquor shops and boycotted foreign goods and cloth. Some Indian traders also rejected foreign goods and foreign trade. The demand for the Indian cloth increased and the vanishing textile industry of India got a new lease of life.
The Non-cooperation movement began with an active response from the people but it slowed after a while. The Non-cooperation movement spread to the rural areas as well and coincided with the protests of peasants and tribals.
In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra, led the peasant movement. This movement demanded revenue reduction, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In October 1920, Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra.
The Peasant movement developed a violent streak, as the peasants attacked houses of the landlords and looted markets. Leaders misused Mahatma Gandhi’s name and ideals.
In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal peasants misinterpreted the meaning of Swaraj and had suffered a lot of oppression at the hands of the British. As a result they staged a rebellion under the leadership of a man called Alluri Sitaram Raju.
Under the new forest policy the British Government had imposed a lot of restrictions on tribal. They were not allowed to collect fuelwood and graze their cattle in the forests. British had also forced them to render their services as Begars.
Raju did not believe in the Gandhian ideals completely. He thought that freedom could be acquired by force and not non-violence. To achieve Swaraj, the rebels of Gudem hills attacked British officers and carried on Guerilla warfare. In 1924, Raju was captured and executed.
People picketed the liquor shops and boycotted foreign goods and cloth. Some Indian traders also rejected foreign goods and foreign trade. The demand for the Indian cloth increased and the vanishing textile industry of India got a new lease of life.
The Non-cooperation movement began with an active response from the people but it slowed after a while. The Non-cooperation movement spread to the rural areas as well and coincided with the protests of peasants and tribals.
In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra, led the peasant movement. This movement demanded revenue reduction, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In October 1920, Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra.
The Peasant movement developed a violent streak, as the peasants attacked houses of the landlords and looted markets. Leaders misused Mahatma Gandhi’s name and ideals.
In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal peasants misinterpreted the meaning of Swaraj and had suffered a lot of oppression at the hands of the British. As a result they staged a rebellion under the leadership of a man called Alluri Sitaram Raju.
Under the new forest policy the British Government had imposed a lot of restrictions on tribal. They were not allowed to collect fuelwood and graze their cattle in the forests. British had also forced them to render their services as Begars.
Raju did not believe in the Gandhian ideals completely. He thought that freedom could be acquired by force and not non-violence. To achieve Swaraj, the rebels of Gudem hills attacked British officers and carried on Guerilla warfare. In 1924, Raju was captured and executed.
Non-Cooperation
Movement in Plantations
The Non-cooperation Movement was
conceptualised as a non- violent, resistance of the British rule. However, it
developed a violent streak.
The plantation workers in Assam worked under very strict rules and regulations. As per the Inland Immigration Act of 1859, the plantation workers were rarely allowed to leave the tea gardens without permission and were seldom allowed to go back homes.
Inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers disobeyed the British authorities and left the plantations to go back to their homes.
Their journey was disrupted due to railway and streamer strikes, were caught by the police and beaten up. The plantation workers had ascribed their own meaning to Swaraj different from that of the congress. They felt that Swaraj marked an era when their sufferings would end.
On 4th February, 1922 thousands of protesters gathered to picket a of the liquor shop at the local market in Chauri Chaura.
To threaten the protestors, the policemen fired in the air. However the agitated crowd began to pelt stones at the police. The sub inspector ordered fire on the crowd which 3 protestors were killed and several others got injured.
The agitated protestors retaliated in a violent manner and began attacking the police from all sides. The policemen got threatened by thousands of people and they locked themselves up in the police station.
To avenge the death of the protestors, the frantic crowd set the Police station on fire. In this incident 22 policemen were burnt alive, including the station sub inspector. Shocked by the growing violence, Mahatma Gandhi decided to take back the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922.
The plantation workers in Assam worked under very strict rules and regulations. As per the Inland Immigration Act of 1859, the plantation workers were rarely allowed to leave the tea gardens without permission and were seldom allowed to go back homes.
Inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers disobeyed the British authorities and left the plantations to go back to their homes.
Their journey was disrupted due to railway and streamer strikes, were caught by the police and beaten up. The plantation workers had ascribed their own meaning to Swaraj different from that of the congress. They felt that Swaraj marked an era when their sufferings would end.
On 4th February, 1922 thousands of protesters gathered to picket a of the liquor shop at the local market in Chauri Chaura.
To threaten the protestors, the policemen fired in the air. However the agitated crowd began to pelt stones at the police. The sub inspector ordered fire on the crowd which 3 protestors were killed and several others got injured.
The agitated protestors retaliated in a violent manner and began attacking the police from all sides. The policemen got threatened by thousands of people and they locked themselves up in the police station.
To avenge the death of the protestors, the frantic crowd set the Police station on fire. In this incident 22 policemen were burnt alive, including the station sub inspector. Shocked by the growing violence, Mahatma Gandhi decided to take back the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922.
Simon
Commission and the Civil Disobedience Movement
In 1922, the Chauri Chaura incident is
considered as an Act of Violence and completely shook Mahatma Gandhi and other
Congress leaders.
In Chauri Chaura, a peace demonstration to picket a liquor shop turned violent when policemen opened fire, killed and injured some satyagrahis. In reaction the police station was set on fire where the policemen had locked themselves burning many of them alive.
In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi took back the Non-Cooperation Movement owing to the widespread of violence. Moti Lal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das formed the The Swaraj Party within the Congress in 1922. Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose opposed this formation and stressed on full independence based on socialist ideas.
The growth of the National Movement was influenced by two factors;
In Chauri Chaura, a peace demonstration to picket a liquor shop turned violent when policemen opened fire, killed and injured some satyagrahis. In reaction the police station was set on fire where the policemen had locked themselves burning many of them alive.
In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi took back the Non-Cooperation Movement owing to the widespread of violence. Moti Lal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das formed the The Swaraj Party within the Congress in 1922. Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose opposed this formation and stressed on full independence based on socialist ideas.
The growth of the National Movement was influenced by two factors;
The worldwide Economic Depression and
The formulation of the Simon Commission under
Sir John Simon.
The Simon Commission was a statutory commission aimed at looking into the constitutional system of India and suggests changes. It was an all-white commission without any Indian representation.
In 1928, when Simon Commission came to India all parties protested against it. To pacify the leaders, Lord Irwin the Viceroy gave a vague offer of Dominion status to India and also proposed a round table conference.
In the Lahore session of the Congress, in 1929 Jawaharlal Nehru declared the demand for Purna Swaraj. The call of Purna Swaraj did not create much enthusiasm among people.
Mahatma Gandhi discovered salt was a common ingredient in the food of both rich and poor. He viewed the tax on salt and the monopoly of the Government on its production as downright oppressive.
On 31st January 1930, he sent a letter to Lord Irwin stating eleven wide ranging demands of various classes of India. The launch of Civil Disobedience was also stated.
On refusal to negotiate by the British, Mahatma Gandhi launched a salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal town of Dandi in Gujarat.
On 6th April Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law manufactured salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The Non- cooperation movement aimed at bringing the British Government to a stand-still by refusing to cooperate with them. The Civil disobedience movement was more assertive and aimed at non-cooperation with the British as well as an open violation of oppressive British laws.
Gandhi-Irwin
Pact and Round Table Conference
Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the
Civil Disobedience Movement spread across the country like wildfire. The British
got worried by the growing popularity of the movement, and so arrested all
prominent Congress leaders.
In April 1930, Abdul Gaffar Khan, a political and spiritual leader and follower of Gandhiji was arrested. Demonstrations and protests followed to oppose Gaffar Khan’s arrest which was suppressed by the British.
The British government dealt with the protestors with an iron hand. Around 10,000 Satyagrahis were arrested and small children and women were thrashed by the police.
Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the Civil Disobedience movement in 1931. On 5th March 1931, Mahatma Gandhi entered into a pact with Lord Irwin the viceroy of India known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. He agreed to participate in the Round Table Conference to be held in London.
In December 1931, Mahatma Gandhi visited London but came back disheartened as the negotiations did not reach any final decision.
On his arrival in India, he found that several Congress leaders had been arrested the Congress was declared an illegal party. Mahatma Gandhi hence re-launched the Civil Disobedience Movement but it lost its momentum by 1934.
In April 1930, Abdul Gaffar Khan, a political and spiritual leader and follower of Gandhiji was arrested. Demonstrations and protests followed to oppose Gaffar Khan’s arrest which was suppressed by the British.
The British government dealt with the protestors with an iron hand. Around 10,000 Satyagrahis were arrested and small children and women were thrashed by the police.
Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the Civil Disobedience movement in 1931. On 5th March 1931, Mahatma Gandhi entered into a pact with Lord Irwin the viceroy of India known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. He agreed to participate in the Round Table Conference to be held in London.
In December 1931, Mahatma Gandhi visited London but came back disheartened as the negotiations did not reach any final decision.
On his arrival in India, he found that several Congress leaders had been arrested the Congress was declared an illegal party. Mahatma Gandhi hence re-launched the Civil Disobedience Movement but it lost its momentum by 1934.
Attitude
of Different Sections of Society
Several people from different sections of
society had participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement to meet their
specific objectives. The rich peasant communities of Gujarat and UP were badly
affected by the economic depression and the resultant fall in agricultural
prices.
They demanded the revenue to be waived off but the government refused and hence they joined the Civil Disobedience Movement.
In 1931 the movement was abruptly called off by Mahatma Gandhi without any revision of the revenue rates. Hence, they did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement when it was re- launched in 1932.
The poor peasants grappled with the problem of paying rent during the time of Depression. The Congress was uncertain about supporting them in their ‘No Rent’ campaign as they feared it could spoil their ties with the Landlords and rich peasants.
The business class had reaped huge profits during the First World War and wanted to expand their business but the stringent colonial laws were obstructing their way.
To get the business class together, Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress was formed in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. These organisations were headed by prominent business personalities like Purushottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla.
Business class viewed Swaraj as an ideal situation, favourable for the growth of their business, a time when all colonial restrictions would be removed. However, the failure of the Second Round table Conference and the growth of socialist ideas in Congress disappointed the business class and made them anxious about the future.
The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army or HSRA was formed in 1928 with Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajoy Ghosh its prominent leaders.
The industrial working class adopted a few Gandhian ideas like boycott of foreign goods as part of their own movement against low wages and poor working conditions. The Congress still did not want to include workers’ demands in the movement as they thought it would alienate the industrialists.
The Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed mass participation of women. They were involved in protests, picketing and boycotts and also helped in manufacturing salt.
On the face of it, Congress encouraged women participation but even Mahatma Gandhi gave more importance to the traditional domestic role of women.
They demanded the revenue to be waived off but the government refused and hence they joined the Civil Disobedience Movement.
In 1931 the movement was abruptly called off by Mahatma Gandhi without any revision of the revenue rates. Hence, they did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement when it was re- launched in 1932.
The poor peasants grappled with the problem of paying rent during the time of Depression. The Congress was uncertain about supporting them in their ‘No Rent’ campaign as they feared it could spoil their ties with the Landlords and rich peasants.
The business class had reaped huge profits during the First World War and wanted to expand their business but the stringent colonial laws were obstructing their way.
To get the business class together, Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress was formed in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. These organisations were headed by prominent business personalities like Purushottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla.
Business class viewed Swaraj as an ideal situation, favourable for the growth of their business, a time when all colonial restrictions would be removed. However, the failure of the Second Round table Conference and the growth of socialist ideas in Congress disappointed the business class and made them anxious about the future.
The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army or HSRA was formed in 1928 with Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajoy Ghosh its prominent leaders.
The industrial working class adopted a few Gandhian ideas like boycott of foreign goods as part of their own movement against low wages and poor working conditions. The Congress still did not want to include workers’ demands in the movement as they thought it would alienate the industrialists.
The Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed mass participation of women. They were involved in protests, picketing and boycotts and also helped in manufacturing salt.
On the face of it, Congress encouraged women participation but even Mahatma Gandhi gave more importance to the traditional domestic role of women.
Personification
of Indian Nationalism
In India, People felt a collective belonging
because they had participated together in freedom struggles against the common
aggressor, the British.
Common folklore, song, popular pictures and symbols also helped in solidifying unity and the spirit of nationalism. The image of Bharat Mata was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. He also wrote our national song ‘Vande Mataram’.
Later, Abanindra Nath Tagore created the famous image of Bharat Mata as an ascetic figure wearing saffron coloured clothes and carrying chain of beads cloth, palm leaves and scriptures in her hands.
The portrayal of Bharat Mata also underwent a lot of changes. In the 1905, painting by Abhanindranath tagore Bharat Mata is not portrayed as an ascetic. She is holding a flag and standing beside an Elephant and Lion both of which are symbols of power and authority.
Revival of the Indian folklore was another process which contributed greatly to the growth of Nationalism. In the late 19th century, the nationalists began gathering the folk tales. The Indian tricoloured flag with red, green and yellow colour was first designed during the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi redesigned the Indian flag with the spinning wheel or Charka at the centre. This flag was often used by nationalists during protests and marches. The growth of nationalism also happened through the process of reinterpretation of history.
The Indians began exploring glories from their past and wrote about the ancient times when India was much developed. They saw the Colonial British era an opposition to the Golden years of the past.
The glories of the past and the symbols used by nationalists such as Bharat Mata were all very Hindu in nature. Consequently, people of other religions and communities felt alienated.
Common folklore, song, popular pictures and symbols also helped in solidifying unity and the spirit of nationalism. The image of Bharat Mata was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. He also wrote our national song ‘Vande Mataram’.
Later, Abanindra Nath Tagore created the famous image of Bharat Mata as an ascetic figure wearing saffron coloured clothes and carrying chain of beads cloth, palm leaves and scriptures in her hands.
The portrayal of Bharat Mata also underwent a lot of changes. In the 1905, painting by Abhanindranath tagore Bharat Mata is not portrayed as an ascetic. She is holding a flag and standing beside an Elephant and Lion both of which are symbols of power and authority.
Revival of the Indian folklore was another process which contributed greatly to the growth of Nationalism. In the late 19th century, the nationalists began gathering the folk tales. The Indian tricoloured flag with red, green and yellow colour was first designed during the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi redesigned the Indian flag with the spinning wheel or Charka at the centre. This flag was often used by nationalists during protests and marches. The growth of nationalism also happened through the process of reinterpretation of history.
The Indians began exploring glories from their past and wrote about the ancient times when India was much developed. They saw the Colonial British era an opposition to the Golden years of the past.
The glories of the past and the symbols used by nationalists such as Bharat Mata were all very Hindu in nature. Consequently, people of other religions and communities felt alienated.
World Trade Pre-modern to 18th Century
World
Trade Pre-modern to 18th Century
Shaping
of the World Economy
The World trade expanded in the 19th century. There were technological,
social, economic and political changes which shaped the world economy.
During this time, three flows governed international economic exchanges. These were the flow of trade or movement of goods, the flow of labour and the movement of capital. In the late 18th century due an increase in population in Britain, the demand for food grains increased considerably.
Rapid industrialisation in urban centres also contributed to the increase in the prices of food grains.
The British government imposed Corn Laws which restricted the import of corn into Britain. After the outcry of the people against high prices the government abolished these laws. Thereafter, Britain witnessed a deluge of cheap imported food which had adverse impacts on the agriculture sector of Britain.
People hence migrated to cities and other countries in search of jobs and a better life. In Russia, Australia and America, new means of transport like railways and harbours were developed to boost trade. New and settlements were built and accommodate emigrant labourers.
In the nineteenth century, world economy was in a phase of rapid growth and transformation. Technological innovations also helped in the expansion of trade. In New Zealand, America and Australia refrigerated ships were used to carry perishable items such as meat to Britain.
During this time, three flows governed international economic exchanges. These were the flow of trade or movement of goods, the flow of labour and the movement of capital. In the late 18th century due an increase in population in Britain, the demand for food grains increased considerably.
Rapid industrialisation in urban centres also contributed to the increase in the prices of food grains.
The British government imposed Corn Laws which restricted the import of corn into Britain. After the outcry of the people against high prices the government abolished these laws. Thereafter, Britain witnessed a deluge of cheap imported food which had adverse impacts on the agriculture sector of Britain.
People hence migrated to cities and other countries in search of jobs and a better life. In Russia, Australia and America, new means of transport like railways and harbours were developed to boost trade. New and settlements were built and accommodate emigrant labourers.
In the nineteenth century, world economy was in a phase of rapid growth and transformation. Technological innovations also helped in the expansion of trade. In New Zealand, America and Australia refrigerated ships were used to carry perishable items such as meat to Britain.
Impacts
of Colonialism on Economy and People
In the 19th century, the world trade expanded and
the European began to colonise Africa. Europeans wanted to get cheap raw
material and labour from Africa.
Africa was long known as the Dark Continent due to its abundant jungles and natural resources. The continent had a relatively small population that never worked for wages. Africans had enough land and livestock to sustain them.
The Europeans wanted to exploit the minerals and other resources of Africa and had to employ people in the mines and plantations. The European rulers imposed heavy taxes and Inheritance laws on Africans.
An important event that led to the complete submission of natives was the outbreak of Rinderpest, a devastating cattle disease. Rinderpest was carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia which was used to feed the Italian soldiers invading East Africa. Rinderpest spread in Africa like wildfire and claimed almost ninety percent of the cattle.
This situation was manipulated by Colonial rulers and the native Africans were subdued and forced to work for wages. The carving of Africa was formally completed in 1885 in Berlin. Britain and France acquired a lot of colonies. Later, they were joined by Belgium, Germany, US and Spain.
Africa was long known as the Dark Continent due to its abundant jungles and natural resources. The continent had a relatively small population that never worked for wages. Africans had enough land and livestock to sustain them.
The Europeans wanted to exploit the minerals and other resources of Africa and had to employ people in the mines and plantations. The European rulers imposed heavy taxes and Inheritance laws on Africans.
An important event that led to the complete submission of natives was the outbreak of Rinderpest, a devastating cattle disease. Rinderpest was carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia which was used to feed the Italian soldiers invading East Africa. Rinderpest spread in Africa like wildfire and claimed almost ninety percent of the cattle.
This situation was manipulated by Colonial rulers and the native Africans were subdued and forced to work for wages. The carving of Africa was formally completed in 1885 in Berlin. Britain and France acquired a lot of colonies. Later, they were joined by Belgium, Germany, US and Spain.
Indian
Indentured Labour and Indian Trade
The term indentured labour referred to a
bonded labourer who was bound by a contract to work for an employer for a
specific period of time.
The 19th century witnessed a rapid expansion of world trade. One of the important developments was the migration of labour from China and India. In India, the indentured workers came from present day regions of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Central India, and parts of Tamil Nadu.
The domestic industry had declined and people migrated as indentured labour to places like Caribbean islands, Mauritius, Fiji, Sri Lanka, Malaya and tea plantations of Assam.
The Indentured labourers were hired by way of a contract which promised that the workers could return to India after they had served their employer for five years.
The indentured labourers were subjected to extremely cruel living conditions. They developed their own forms of self-expression which was actually a blend of Indian and foreign cultural forms. Indentured labour migration was extremely criticised and finally abolished in 1921.
In India, the peasants borrowed from local bankers such as Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars. These bankers financed export agriculture in Central and South East Asia.
In the 19th century, the value of British exports to India was much higher than the British imports from India. Britain maintained a trade surplus with India which helped it balance out its trade deficits with other countries.
The 19th century witnessed a rapid expansion of world trade. One of the important developments was the migration of labour from China and India. In India, the indentured workers came from present day regions of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Central India, and parts of Tamil Nadu.
The domestic industry had declined and people migrated as indentured labour to places like Caribbean islands, Mauritius, Fiji, Sri Lanka, Malaya and tea plantations of Assam.
The Indentured labourers were hired by way of a contract which promised that the workers could return to India after they had served their employer for five years.
The indentured labourers were subjected to extremely cruel living conditions. They developed their own forms of self-expression which was actually a blend of Indian and foreign cultural forms. Indentured labour migration was extremely criticised and finally abolished in 1921.
In India, the peasants borrowed from local bankers such as Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars. These bankers financed export agriculture in Central and South East Asia.
In the 19th century, the value of British exports to India was much higher than the British imports from India. Britain maintained a trade surplus with India which helped it balance out its trade deficits with other countries.
World
Economy Before and After World War 1
The fast developing world trade and world
economy suffered a huge jolt in the 20th century, due to the First World War.
It was fought between two opposing groups known as Triple Allies and Triple
Entente.
Years that followed the ware were marked with a lot of social, political and economic instability. World war one can technically be called the first modern industrial war. It mobilised the use of modern weapons such as machine guns, aircrafts, tanks and chemical weapons.
A large chunk of working class men were completely wiped off in Europe during World War I. Since the men were at the battle front women were recruited to do the jobs which were only reserved for men earlier. The recovery period after the war was difficult and long drawn. Britain found it hard to regain its dominant position in the world economy.
The growth of industries, production and employment had boomed during war time. During war Canada, Australia and America emerged as new centres of agriculture production. One country which recovered effectively after World War I was the US. By lending financial help to other countries during the war, the US emerged as an international creditor.
After 1920, the US economy grew at a rapid pace courtesy mass production. The owner of Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford championed the assembly line method of mass production to produce vehicles at a faster rate.
This method reduced the production time and increased the output of the worker. Henry Ford increased the pace of work and disallowed any trade unions in his plants. Due to higher wages, workers could now afford consumer goods.
The demand for consumer goods was also fuelled by the boom in the housing and construction sector. Houses were also available on loan. The 1920s turned out to be a golden era for the US economy.
Years that followed the ware were marked with a lot of social, political and economic instability. World war one can technically be called the first modern industrial war. It mobilised the use of modern weapons such as machine guns, aircrafts, tanks and chemical weapons.
A large chunk of working class men were completely wiped off in Europe during World War I. Since the men were at the battle front women were recruited to do the jobs which were only reserved for men earlier. The recovery period after the war was difficult and long drawn. Britain found it hard to regain its dominant position in the world economy.
The growth of industries, production and employment had boomed during war time. During war Canada, Australia and America emerged as new centres of agriculture production. One country which recovered effectively after World War I was the US. By lending financial help to other countries during the war, the US emerged as an international creditor.
After 1920, the US economy grew at a rapid pace courtesy mass production. The owner of Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford championed the assembly line method of mass production to produce vehicles at a faster rate.
This method reduced the production time and increased the output of the worker. Henry Ford increased the pace of work and disallowed any trade unions in his plants. Due to higher wages, workers could now afford consumer goods.
The demand for consumer goods was also fuelled by the boom in the housing and construction sector. Houses were also available on loan. The 1920s turned out to be a golden era for the US economy.
The
Great Economic Depression
The Great Depression began in 1929 with a
steep fall in New York Stock Exchange and continued well into the mid-1930s.
During depression agricultural prices fell, industrial production came to a halt, and millions of people became jobless and homeless.
The depression was caused due to an overflow of food grains in the market which led to a fall in the agricultural prices. Canada, Australia and America had emerged as new alternate centres of wheat production during war.
During and after the war the US had emerged as an international money lender. The US withdrew loans from other countries because of which major banks and currencies collapsed in Europe. To overcome the depression, the US imposed import duties which again hindered the world trade. During the depression, India’s exports and imports shrunk to almost half. The agricultural prices fell and affected the peasants and farmers badly.
The poor peasants mortgaged their land, jewellery and other precious things to pay off debts and meet their daily needs.
The depression did not affect the middle class urban Indians so much. Due to the fall in prices all commodities began to cost less. Since the British Government provided tariff protection to industries there was also an increase in industry investment.
During depression agricultural prices fell, industrial production came to a halt, and millions of people became jobless and homeless.
The depression was caused due to an overflow of food grains in the market which led to a fall in the agricultural prices. Canada, Australia and America had emerged as new alternate centres of wheat production during war.
During and after the war the US had emerged as an international money lender. The US withdrew loans from other countries because of which major banks and currencies collapsed in Europe. To overcome the depression, the US imposed import duties which again hindered the world trade. During the depression, India’s exports and imports shrunk to almost half. The agricultural prices fell and affected the peasants and farmers badly.
The poor peasants mortgaged their land, jewellery and other precious things to pay off debts and meet their daily needs.
The depression did not affect the middle class urban Indians so much. Due to the fall in prices all commodities began to cost less. Since the British Government provided tariff protection to industries there was also an increase in industry investment.
Growth
of the World Economy After World War II
The Second World War proved even more
catastrophic than the First World War. It witnessed the death of millions of
civilians all over the world.
Fought between two opposing military groups, the Allies and the Axis, it was the first time that nuclear bombs were thrown and artillery attacks were used to raze down cities. The post war years were marked with a lot of social, political and economic instability.
After the war, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two major superpowers. The main focus of the post war economic system was to maintain economic stability and full employment. The framework of the post-war international economic system was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in the USA.
The Bretton Woods conference established two important institutions, The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The International Monetary fund was created to help with the external surpluses and deficits of the member countries. The World Bank was to finance the reconstruction after the war. Bretton Woods ushered in an era of economic growth, world trade and the exchange of technological knowhow. The western countries experienced immense growth after the war but it did not help the developing countries so much.
When the European nations and Japan had strengthened their economies, the Bretton woods institutions began focusing more on the developing countries.
The developing countries collectively formed a group known as G-77 to boost the growth of their economies. The aim of this group was to demand a New International economic Order or NIEO to control their natural resources and get better trade opportunities.
The last years of 1970s witnessed a shift in the business operations of multinational companies to countries such as India, China, and Brazil. The cost of labour was comparatively low in these countries.
Fought between two opposing military groups, the Allies and the Axis, it was the first time that nuclear bombs were thrown and artillery attacks were used to raze down cities. The post war years were marked with a lot of social, political and economic instability.
After the war, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two major superpowers. The main focus of the post war economic system was to maintain economic stability and full employment. The framework of the post-war international economic system was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in the USA.
The Bretton Woods conference established two important institutions, The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The International Monetary fund was created to help with the external surpluses and deficits of the member countries. The World Bank was to finance the reconstruction after the war. Bretton Woods ushered in an era of economic growth, world trade and the exchange of technological knowhow. The western countries experienced immense growth after the war but it did not help the developing countries so much.
When the European nations and Japan had strengthened their economies, the Bretton woods institutions began focusing more on the developing countries.
The developing countries collectively formed a group known as G-77 to boost the growth of their economies. The aim of this group was to demand a New International economic Order or NIEO to control their natural resources and get better trade opportunities.
The last years of 1970s witnessed a shift in the business operations of multinational companies to countries such as India, China, and Brazil. The cost of labour was comparatively low in these countries.
Industrial Revolution
Before
the Industrial Revolution
Industrialization did not exactly begin with
industries and machines. The early industrialisation phase, also known as proto
industrialisation paved the way for modern industrial economies.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, several merchants in Europe shifted their production to the countryside and persuaded peasants and artisans to produce for an international market. Open fields and common land were fast disappearing and peasants were desperately looking for alternate sources of income, so they readily agreed.
The proto industrial times involved a lot of workers who worked from their homes and not in factories. By the 1730s though factories began developing in Britain, they actually expanded in the late 18th century. Cotton was the first industry to grow in Britain. The invention of the cloth mill by Richard Arkwright brought a revolution to cloth production by bringing together the scattered processes under one single roof. Iron and steel was the next industry to flourish.
With the expansion of the railway network in Britain as well as in the colonies, there was a huge demand for iron and steel. Even at the end of the 19th century most textile production happened through domestic units.
Despite many small industries had begun using some technology in their processes, industrialists were still hesitant about the new machines due to their high repair and maintenance cost, so the shift to machines was a gradual and slow process.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, several merchants in Europe shifted their production to the countryside and persuaded peasants and artisans to produce for an international market. Open fields and common land were fast disappearing and peasants were desperately looking for alternate sources of income, so they readily agreed.
The proto industrial times involved a lot of workers who worked from their homes and not in factories. By the 1730s though factories began developing in Britain, they actually expanded in the late 18th century. Cotton was the first industry to grow in Britain. The invention of the cloth mill by Richard Arkwright brought a revolution to cloth production by bringing together the scattered processes under one single roof. Iron and steel was the next industry to flourish.
With the expansion of the railway network in Britain as well as in the colonies, there was a huge demand for iron and steel. Even at the end of the 19th century most textile production happened through domestic units.
Despite many small industries had begun using some technology in their processes, industrialists were still hesitant about the new machines due to their high repair and maintenance cost, so the shift to machines was a gradual and slow process.
Hand
Labour and New Technology
During the 19th century, many people migrated to the
industrial centres, in search of jobs. Since the market was flooded with
people, labour was cheap.
Cheap labour was a profitable option for the industrialists, so rather than installing machines, the owners preferred to hire manual labour for a short period.
Manual work was also favoured for products that required intricate design and finish. Machines could be used to mass-produce uniform goods. It required craftsmanship and skill to make goods with individual specifications. So, workers had to spend weeks of extreme hardship before they finally got jobs.
During the 19th century, wages increased slightly but their real value remained low due to the consequent price rise. Till the mid-19th century nearly 10% of the urban population was very poor. During the economic slump, there was a dramatic rise in the unemployed population in the cities.
The innovation of new machines would replace the workers was another threat. The Spinning Jenny, designed by James Hargreaves in 1764 increased the pace of spinning and reduced the demand for labour, leaving hand spinners jobless.
The second half of the 19th century, the rise of building activities came as a blessing in disguise for the workers. Construction work for railways, road widening, drainage and sewers created new job opportunities.
Cheap labour was a profitable option for the industrialists, so rather than installing machines, the owners preferred to hire manual labour for a short period.
Manual work was also favoured for products that required intricate design and finish. Machines could be used to mass-produce uniform goods. It required craftsmanship and skill to make goods with individual specifications. So, workers had to spend weeks of extreme hardship before they finally got jobs.
During the 19th century, wages increased slightly but their real value remained low due to the consequent price rise. Till the mid-19th century nearly 10% of the urban population was very poor. During the economic slump, there was a dramatic rise in the unemployed population in the cities.
The innovation of new machines would replace the workers was another threat. The Spinning Jenny, designed by James Hargreaves in 1764 increased the pace of spinning and reduced the demand for labour, leaving hand spinners jobless.
The second half of the 19th century, the rise of building activities came as a blessing in disguise for the workers. Construction work for railways, road widening, drainage and sewers created new job opportunities.
Industrialisation
in Colonies
Historically, India has been known the world
over for its flowing silks and crisp cottons. Textiles were one of the most
vital industries of India.
India had a huge international market for its textiles. The old sea ports of Surat, Masulipatam and Hoogly also enhanced the textile trade and connected India with the Gulf, ports in the Red Sea and South-East Asia.
Indian merchants and bankers played a key role in the export trade. The European companies obtained several concessions from local courts and secured monopoly rights to trade. The old Indian ports began to shrink and Bombay and Calcutta emerged as the new ports catering to the European companies.
The textile market in India was very competitive with a variety of foreign and local traders where a weaver and a supply merchant could negotiate the best price for the goods. After establishing its power, the East India Company developed a system of management and control. This system helped the company eradicate competition, control costs and ensure regular supply of textile goods. The company also appointed a paid servant called the Gomastha who supervised the weavers, collected their produce and examined the quality of cloth.
This did away with the brokers in cloth trade and made Gomasthas the sole buyers of the weavers’ produce. The Gomasthas were insensitive and paid very low prices to the weavers. In wake of this exploitation, some weavers rebelled and some migrated to other villages while a few of them even gave up weaving and became agricultural labourers.
With the arrival of goods from Manchester, the weavers faced stiff competition in the local markets. Due to the import duties overseas, Indian weavers lost their overseas market as well. This made the situation worse for the weavers as their export marked collapsed.
During the US Civil War, the cotton supplies to Britain drastically decreased and so Britain turned to India for support. This led to a sudden surge in raw cotton exports resulting in soaring cotton prices. Towards the end of the 19th century India saw the growth of factories and the fine art of weaving died a slow death.
India had a huge international market for its textiles. The old sea ports of Surat, Masulipatam and Hoogly also enhanced the textile trade and connected India with the Gulf, ports in the Red Sea and South-East Asia.
Indian merchants and bankers played a key role in the export trade. The European companies obtained several concessions from local courts and secured monopoly rights to trade. The old Indian ports began to shrink and Bombay and Calcutta emerged as the new ports catering to the European companies.
The textile market in India was very competitive with a variety of foreign and local traders where a weaver and a supply merchant could negotiate the best price for the goods. After establishing its power, the East India Company developed a system of management and control. This system helped the company eradicate competition, control costs and ensure regular supply of textile goods. The company also appointed a paid servant called the Gomastha who supervised the weavers, collected their produce and examined the quality of cloth.
This did away with the brokers in cloth trade and made Gomasthas the sole buyers of the weavers’ produce. The Gomasthas were insensitive and paid very low prices to the weavers. In wake of this exploitation, some weavers rebelled and some migrated to other villages while a few of them even gave up weaving and became agricultural labourers.
With the arrival of goods from Manchester, the weavers faced stiff competition in the local markets. Due to the import duties overseas, Indian weavers lost their overseas market as well. This made the situation worse for the weavers as their export marked collapsed.
During the US Civil War, the cotton supplies to Britain drastically decreased and so Britain turned to India for support. This led to a sudden surge in raw cotton exports resulting in soaring cotton prices. Towards the end of the 19th century India saw the growth of factories and the fine art of weaving died a slow death.
Factories in India
Jamsetjee Nasserwanji Tata, for the Tata group
of industries and Dwaraknath Tagore one of the first Indian businessmen
invested in shipping, shipbuilding, mining, and banking and insurance. Indians
got involved in the British China trade by providing finance, procure supplies
and ship consignments.
After making money from the China trade, some Indians decided to set up their own industries. In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore invested his money to set up six joint stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s, but they did not flourish.
Jamsetjee Nasserwanji Tata and Dinshaw Petit established industries in Bombay while Seth Hukumchand set up the first jute mill in Calcutta.
The stringent policies of the British government restricted their trade. Their exports were limited to items like cotton, opium, wheat and indigo which were required by the British.
European managing agencies were given the task of controlling Indian industries. These agencies rendered Indian industrialists helpless and had complete control over all the investments and key business decisions.
Indian factories multiplied in the second half of the 19th century. The first cotton mill was established in Bombay in 1854. A few years later, the first jute mill sprung up in Bengal. A strong labour force was required in these mills which opened new avenues of employment. As the number of job aspirants increased, mill owners began to hire a jobber who helped manage recruitment.
After making money from the China trade, some Indians decided to set up their own industries. In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore invested his money to set up six joint stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s, but they did not flourish.
Jamsetjee Nasserwanji Tata and Dinshaw Petit established industries in Bombay while Seth Hukumchand set up the first jute mill in Calcutta.
The stringent policies of the British government restricted their trade. Their exports were limited to items like cotton, opium, wheat and indigo which were required by the British.
European managing agencies were given the task of controlling Indian industries. These agencies rendered Indian industrialists helpless and had complete control over all the investments and key business decisions.
Indian factories multiplied in the second half of the 19th century. The first cotton mill was established in Bombay in 1854. A few years later, the first jute mill sprung up in Bengal. A strong labour force was required in these mills which opened new avenues of employment. As the number of job aspirants increased, mill owners began to hire a jobber who helped manage recruitment.
Marketing
and Industrial Growth
In the last phase of the 19th century, Indian markets were flooded
by goods from Britain. British manufacturers used effective advertisements to
create a positive image of their product and boost sales.
Early Manchester labels showed many Indian Gods and Goddesses to create respect and approval for the product. The advertisements by Indian manufacturers were very nationalistic upholding the idea of Swadeshi.
During Swadeshi movement in the 20th century the industrial groups pressurized the government to increase tariff protection and grant them other concessions.
From 1906 the export of Indian yarn to China declined because of new players in the Chinese market. The beginning of the First World War brought a dramatic turn to industrialisation in India. The supply of Manchester goods declined as the English mills got busy in producing goods for the war. This provided opportunity to the Indian Mill owners to capture the domestic market. Indian industries were also used to supply items for the British army in war later.
After the war, British economy could not compete with new players US, Japan and Germany and collapsed. Manchester could not regain its position in the Indian market either. The handloom cloth production increased in the 20th century due to the use of looms with fly shuttle. The weavers learnt to handle competition from the mills. After World War I, many factories grew in India but the maximum labour force worked out of small household units in the villages.
Early Manchester labels showed many Indian Gods and Goddesses to create respect and approval for the product. The advertisements by Indian manufacturers were very nationalistic upholding the idea of Swadeshi.
During Swadeshi movement in the 20th century the industrial groups pressurized the government to increase tariff protection and grant them other concessions.
From 1906 the export of Indian yarn to China declined because of new players in the Chinese market. The beginning of the First World War brought a dramatic turn to industrialisation in India. The supply of Manchester goods declined as the English mills got busy in producing goods for the war. This provided opportunity to the Indian Mill owners to capture the domestic market. Indian industries were also used to supply items for the British army in war later.
After the war, British economy could not compete with new players US, Japan and Germany and collapsed. Manchester could not regain its position in the Indian market either. The handloom cloth production increased in the 20th century due to the use of looms with fly shuttle. The weavers learnt to handle competition from the mills. After World War I, many factories grew in India but the maximum labour force worked out of small household units in the villages.
Work, Life and Leisure
The
City of London
After the Industrial revolution, London’s
population increased from 6,75,000 in 1750 to about 4 million in 1880. The city
gradually underwent urbanisation as people migrated to it for work.
Urbanisation refers to the development of a city or town.
People sought work in the London dockyard, or in industries dealing in clothing and footwear, wood and furniture, printing and stationery.
During this period, the workforce comprised of men, women and children. It was only after the passing of the Compulsory Elementary Education Act that children were kept out of industrial work.
The growing population of London caused concern for three groups of people i.e. The police, The philanthropists and The industrialists. Philanthropists are people who work for social upliftment and charity, donating time and money for the purpose. In the late 18th century, many women worked in factories but technological developments soon reduced the requirement for a vast labour force and many women lost their jobs.
The promise of work continued to attract more people to the city, causing a severe housing shortage. Most of the migrant workers lived in tenements. Three major concerns that led to better housing for the poor were: the threat to public health, the possibility of fire hazards and fear of social disorder.
The London Underground railway partially solved the problem by carrying approximately ten thousand passengers, daily, to and from the city. However, the Underground had its critics who felt it added to the mess and unhealthiness of the city. Several houses had been destroyed to make way for its construction. This led to a massive displacement of London’s poor.
People sought work in the London dockyard, or in industries dealing in clothing and footwear, wood and furniture, printing and stationery.
During this period, the workforce comprised of men, women and children. It was only after the passing of the Compulsory Elementary Education Act that children were kept out of industrial work.
The growing population of London caused concern for three groups of people i.e. The police, The philanthropists and The industrialists. Philanthropists are people who work for social upliftment and charity, donating time and money for the purpose. In the late 18th century, many women worked in factories but technological developments soon reduced the requirement for a vast labour force and many women lost their jobs.
The promise of work continued to attract more people to the city, causing a severe housing shortage. Most of the migrant workers lived in tenements. Three major concerns that led to better housing for the poor were: the threat to public health, the possibility of fire hazards and fear of social disorder.
The London Underground railway partially solved the problem by carrying approximately ten thousand passengers, daily, to and from the city. However, the Underground had its critics who felt it added to the mess and unhealthiness of the city. Several houses had been destroyed to make way for its construction. This led to a massive displacement of London’s poor.
Social
change and Politics in the City
Industrialisation brought many people to the
city in search of work and a better life. The life in the city encouraged a
spirit of individualism. The term Individualism refers to a theory that
promotes the liberty, rights or independent action of the individual, rather
than of the community.
However, individualism did not guarantee equal rights to both men and women. Political movements such as Chartism and the 10 hour movement focussed on the rights of men. It was only after the women suffrages movement that women gained the right to vote and the right to own property after marriage.
The family became a smaller and people had more time for leisure. The rich spent their free time in pleasure gardens, which had sports, entertainment and refreshments. The state built libraries, art galleries and museums to educate, entertain and to instil a sense of pride, for their heritage, in the common people.
Before the 20th century, the working classes frequented music halls, but that changed with the onset of cinema, which catered to mixed audiences. Groups of people were drawn into political causes driven by poverty and poor living conditions. For instance, the Bloody Sunday riot of 1887 and the 12 day dockyard workers strike.
State authorities tried to keep rebellion in check and also worked on enhancing the beauty of urban areas. Haussmanisation refers to the forcible reconstruction of cities to enhance their beauty and impose order. The reconstruction displaced approximately 350,000 people from the centre of Paris.
Initially, people criticised Haussmann's designs as boring. However, this criticism soon turned to pride as Paris became the hub of many new architectural, social and intellectual developments influencing other parts of the world.
However, individualism did not guarantee equal rights to both men and women. Political movements such as Chartism and the 10 hour movement focussed on the rights of men. It was only after the women suffrages movement that women gained the right to vote and the right to own property after marriage.
The family became a smaller and people had more time for leisure. The rich spent their free time in pleasure gardens, which had sports, entertainment and refreshments. The state built libraries, art galleries and museums to educate, entertain and to instil a sense of pride, for their heritage, in the common people.
Before the 20th century, the working classes frequented music halls, but that changed with the onset of cinema, which catered to mixed audiences. Groups of people were drawn into political causes driven by poverty and poor living conditions. For instance, the Bloody Sunday riot of 1887 and the 12 day dockyard workers strike.
State authorities tried to keep rebellion in check and also worked on enhancing the beauty of urban areas. Haussmanisation refers to the forcible reconstruction of cities to enhance their beauty and impose order. The reconstruction displaced approximately 350,000 people from the centre of Paris.
Initially, people criticised Haussmann's designs as boring. However, this criticism soon turned to pride as Paris became the hub of many new architectural, social and intellectual developments influencing other parts of the world.
The
City of Bombay
In the 17th century, Bombay was a group of seven
islands under Portuguese control.
It was handed over to the British in 1661, after the Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza, married Britain’s King Charles II. Bombay soon became the base and principal western port of the British East India Company.
In the 19th century, Bombay became a chief port for trade in cotton and opium and thus attracted communities of traders and merchants. Migrant workers were drawn to the city to the newly established sugar and textile mills. Bombay was at the junction head of two major railways. This made it easy for people to migrate to the city.
The influx of people soon created a crisis of housing space and water supply. While the richer Parsi, Muslim and uppercaste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling spacious bungalows. The majority of the working population lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Life in the city was often authentically captured by the Bombay Film Industry. Authorities tried to solve the space crunch caused by large scale migration by reclaiming land from the sea.
The earliest project began in seventeen eighty four, when William Hornby, the Bombay governor, approved the building of the great sea wall which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay. A good example of this reclamation activity is the famous Marine Drive.
It was handed over to the British in 1661, after the Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza, married Britain’s King Charles II. Bombay soon became the base and principal western port of the British East India Company.
In the 19th century, Bombay became a chief port for trade in cotton and opium and thus attracted communities of traders and merchants. Migrant workers were drawn to the city to the newly established sugar and textile mills. Bombay was at the junction head of two major railways. This made it easy for people to migrate to the city.
The influx of people soon created a crisis of housing space and water supply. While the richer Parsi, Muslim and uppercaste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling spacious bungalows. The majority of the working population lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Life in the city was often authentically captured by the Bombay Film Industry. Authorities tried to solve the space crunch caused by large scale migration by reclaiming land from the sea.
The earliest project began in seventeen eighty four, when William Hornby, the Bombay governor, approved the building of the great sea wall which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay. A good example of this reclamation activity is the famous Marine Drive.
Cities
and the Challenges of the Environment
Most cities grew and developed at the expense
to the environment. Natural features were cleared to make space for factories,
houses, business, schools, etc.
The development of industrial factories also had its harmful effects on the environment. The black emission from the factories was and still is a major source of air pollution. Urban development led to air, water and noise pollution, which became a regular feature of urban life.
Cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester became covered with thick black fog or smog due to release of smoke from factory chimneys throughout the day. This smog posed serious health and environmental problems. Laws like the Smoke Abatement Acts were unsuccessful in controlling the pollution.
Although people campaigned for cleaner air, businesses were unwilling to invest in technology that would improve their machines and reduce pollution. Calcutta had thick fog from its marshes mixed with smoke emanating from household fuel of burnt dung and wood that was used as fuel in daily lives. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get smoke nuisance legislation.
The development of industrial factories also had its harmful effects on the environment. The black emission from the factories was and still is a major source of air pollution. Urban development led to air, water and noise pollution, which became a regular feature of urban life.
Cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester became covered with thick black fog or smog due to release of smoke from factory chimneys throughout the day. This smog posed serious health and environmental problems. Laws like the Smoke Abatement Acts were unsuccessful in controlling the pollution.
Although people campaigned for cleaner air, businesses were unwilling to invest in technology that would improve their machines and reduce pollution. Calcutta had thick fog from its marshes mixed with smoke emanating from household fuel of burnt dung and wood that was used as fuel in daily lives. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get smoke nuisance legislation.
Print Culture and the Modern World
The
Advent of Print Technology
The earliest books were printed using hand
printing technology which was first developed in China, Japan and Korea. In
ancient China skilled woodblock carvers started printing books from AD 594
onwards.
Paper was rubbed on the inked surface of woodblocks and then pages were stitched to form a traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’. This was also known as the hand printing.
A century later, urban culture bloomed in China which introduced reading as a leisure activity. They wanted to read a variety of books such as, fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces, and romantic plays. Mechanical presses from the Western countries were introduced in China.
In AD 868, the Japanese printed their first book ─ Diamond Sutra. An interesting art form called ukiyo emerged in Japan, introduced by painter Kitagawa Utamaro.
In the 13th century, the hand-printing technology was introduced in Europe with the Chinese paper travelling to Europe via the silk route. In 1295, Marco Polo returned to Italy with the knowledge of woodblock printing technology.
In the 1430s printing press was invented by Johann Gutenberg in Germany. The first book he printed was the Bible. Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were established in most of the European countries.
Paper was rubbed on the inked surface of woodblocks and then pages were stitched to form a traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’. This was also known as the hand printing.
A century later, urban culture bloomed in China which introduced reading as a leisure activity. They wanted to read a variety of books such as, fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces, and romantic plays. Mechanical presses from the Western countries were introduced in China.
In AD 868, the Japanese printed their first book ─ Diamond Sutra. An interesting art form called ukiyo emerged in Japan, introduced by painter Kitagawa Utamaro.
In the 13th century, the hand-printing technology was introduced in Europe with the Chinese paper travelling to Europe via the silk route. In 1295, Marco Polo returned to Italy with the knowledge of woodblock printing technology.
In the 1430s printing press was invented by Johann Gutenberg in Germany. The first book he printed was the Bible. Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were established in most of the European countries.
Print
Revolution and Its Impact
People used the print technology to freely
spread their ideas which put fear on those in authority. Print could greatly
affect the minds of people and influence them leading to debates and
discussions. One such religious debate in 1517, by Martin Luther led to
the division of the Roman Catholic church and the beginning of the Protestant
Reformation in Europe.
To prevent rise of rebellious ideas, the Roman Church imposed certain limitations on publishers and booksellers and began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
By the end of the 18th century, some parts of Europe had a high literacy rate. Peasants and artisans too could read. In England, travelling pedlars known as chapmen sold pocket sized books or chapbooks for a penny and so were commonly called penny chapbooks whereas in France, inexpensive books called ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ were sold to the poor. Scientists like Isaac Newton and philosophers like Thomas Paine, Voltaire started publishing their discoveries and ideas.
In 18th century, people believed that books had the power to liberate society from despotism or absolute power. All these ideas from print paved way to debates and discussions and made people question the existing ideas and beliefs. This spread hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
To prevent rise of rebellious ideas, the Roman Church imposed certain limitations on publishers and booksellers and began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
By the end of the 18th century, some parts of Europe had a high literacy rate. Peasants and artisans too could read. In England, travelling pedlars known as chapmen sold pocket sized books or chapbooks for a penny and so were commonly called penny chapbooks whereas in France, inexpensive books called ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ were sold to the poor. Scientists like Isaac Newton and philosophers like Thomas Paine, Voltaire started publishing their discoveries and ideas.
In 18th century, people believed that books had the power to liberate society from despotism or absolute power. All these ideas from print paved way to debates and discussions and made people question the existing ideas and beliefs. This spread hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
Changes
in the Nineteenth Century
Print culture saw several changes in the 19th century. With a high literacy rate, a
large number of children, women and workers became a part of the reading
culture. School textbooks and reading material like folk and fairy tales
for children formed a major part of the publishing industry. Grimm’s Fairy
Tales, a popular collection of German folktales was published in this period.
In 1857, a press was set up in France that printed books only for children. Women also showed a huge interest in literature and apart from reading they also took up writing. Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters and Mary Ann Evans were some of the best known female novelists.
Their writings defined the new woman as a person with strength, personality, intelligence and determination.
Lending libraries also became a means of educating people of the lower middle class. Printers and publishers came up with new strategies to sell their products. They started publishing serialised novels, advertisements and notices were printed and pasted on common places to attract buyers. There were also series of innovations in the printing technology.
By mid-19th century, Richard M. Hoe of New York developed a cylindrical press which operated on electricity. It could print 8,000 sheets per hour and was useful for printing newspapers.
In 1857, a press was set up in France that printed books only for children. Women also showed a huge interest in literature and apart from reading they also took up writing. Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters and Mary Ann Evans were some of the best known female novelists.
Their writings defined the new woman as a person with strength, personality, intelligence and determination.
Lending libraries also became a means of educating people of the lower middle class. Printers and publishers came up with new strategies to sell their products. They started publishing serialised novels, advertisements and notices were printed and pasted on common places to attract buyers. There were also series of innovations in the printing technology.
By mid-19th century, Richard M. Hoe of New York developed a cylindrical press which operated on electricity. It could print 8,000 sheets per hour and was useful for printing newspapers.
India
and the World of Print
In the mid-16th century printing press was introduced
to India by the Portuguese missionaries. Towards the end of 18th century, a number of newspapers and
journals were printed. Gangadhar Bhattacharya’s Bengal Gazette was the first
newspaper to be started by an Indian. Print and newspapers became a useful
medium to convey views.
Later, several religious texts were published in portable form which increased the readership of these texts. Growing reading culture resulted in people wanting to read novels, stories, poems and social and political issues.
When visuals also became a part of the print culture painters like Raja Ravi Varma provided their artwork for circulation. Caricatures and cartoons were also published which depicted the social and political issues of the society.
Women became an important part of the print culture. Several women writers wrote passionately about women’s lives and their emotions. These included Kailashbashini Debi, Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai.
Reading and print culture spread rapidly in India. Battala, a place in Calcutta was devoted entirely to the printing of popular books. Public libraries were established in towns, cities and a few prosperous villages making books more accessible. Jyotiba Phule, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his book Gulamgiri. The millworkers of Bangalore cotton also set up libraries to educate themselves.
Later, several religious texts were published in portable form which increased the readership of these texts. Growing reading culture resulted in people wanting to read novels, stories, poems and social and political issues.
When visuals also became a part of the print culture painters like Raja Ravi Varma provided their artwork for circulation. Caricatures and cartoons were also published which depicted the social and political issues of the society.
Women became an important part of the print culture. Several women writers wrote passionately about women’s lives and their emotions. These included Kailashbashini Debi, Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai.
Reading and print culture spread rapidly in India. Battala, a place in Calcutta was devoted entirely to the printing of popular books. Public libraries were established in towns, cities and a few prosperous villages making books more accessible. Jyotiba Phule, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his book Gulamgiri. The millworkers of Bangalore cotton also set up libraries to educate themselves.
Print
and Censorship
Print had a huge impact on its readers and
hence the East India Company wanted to restrict the publications.
In the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom. After the revolt of 1857, the Englishmen demanded to clamp the local press and wanted to control the spread of nationalism.
The Vernacular Press Act which was passed in 1878 gave the government right to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
In spite of these controls, the number of nationalist newspapers increased throughout the India. When Company attempted to suppress any nationalist expression, militant protests were launched. Print culture became one of the major driving forces behind the Indian freedom struggle.
In the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom. After the revolt of 1857, the Englishmen demanded to clamp the local press and wanted to control the spread of nationalism.
The Vernacular Press Act which was passed in 1878 gave the government right to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
In spite of these controls, the number of nationalist newspapers increased throughout the India. When Company attempted to suppress any nationalist expression, militant protests were launched. Print culture became one of the major driving forces behind the Indian freedom struggle.
Novels, Society and History
Rise
of the Novel
Novel is a narrative form, which captivates
readers and carries them into an imaginary world of fictitious characters. The
wide circulation of printed copies made the novel a popular genre with people across
different strata of society. Novels allowed the reader a private reading
experience as well as the joy of public reading.
The first novels were written in the 17th century, but they blossomed in the 18th century. The aristocrats, gentlemanly class and the upcoming lower middle class became the first readers of novels in England and France.
Novel writers experimented with different writing styles like the epistolary novel, written in the form of a series of letters to tell the story. In 1836 serialised novel writing came up in a magazine where suspense was built up as the story unfolded slowly.
Novels were about everyday lives of ordinary people. 19th century England was grappling with the consequences of industrialization and Charles Dickens’ talked about the same in his novels. Crowded cities, underpaid workers, homeless children and industrial capitalism became common themes in his novels.
Novels also talked about the fast vanishing rural world like in the novel by Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge. The novel blended the spoken language and the classical language, and brought different people on a common platform.
The rise of novels witnessed the active involvement of women as writers and readers. Jane Austen and Charlotte Bronte famous for Pride and Prejudice and Jane Eyre depicted the world of women and dealt with the themes of courtship, marriage and money.
Writing was not considered an ideal profession for women so many women writers used false names or pseudonyms. Novels for young boys aroused the adventure of visiting and conquering new lands like R. L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island and Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book.
The first novels were written in the 17th century, but they blossomed in the 18th century. The aristocrats, gentlemanly class and the upcoming lower middle class became the first readers of novels in England and France.
Novel writers experimented with different writing styles like the epistolary novel, written in the form of a series of letters to tell the story. In 1836 serialised novel writing came up in a magazine where suspense was built up as the story unfolded slowly.
Novels were about everyday lives of ordinary people. 19th century England was grappling with the consequences of industrialization and Charles Dickens’ talked about the same in his novels. Crowded cities, underpaid workers, homeless children and industrial capitalism became common themes in his novels.
Novels also talked about the fast vanishing rural world like in the novel by Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge. The novel blended the spoken language and the classical language, and brought different people on a common platform.
The rise of novels witnessed the active involvement of women as writers and readers. Jane Austen and Charlotte Bronte famous for Pride and Prejudice and Jane Eyre depicted the world of women and dealt with the themes of courtship, marriage and money.
Writing was not considered an ideal profession for women so many women writers used false names or pseudonyms. Novels for young boys aroused the adventure of visiting and conquering new lands like R. L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island and Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book.
Rise
of the Novel in India
Historically, Indian stories in prose had been
written in Sanskrit like Kadambari by Banabhatta and Panchatantra. Urdu and
Persian also had a tradition of prose adventure stories known as dastan but
none of these texts were like the modern novel.
The growth of the reading public, print and vernaculars proved favourable for the growth of the novel in India in the 19th century.
The earliest novels were written in Marathi and Bengali. Yamuna Paryatan, by Baba Padmanji was one of the first Marathi novels about the miserable life of widows. The first novel in Bengali Karuna O Phulmonir Bibaran was written by Hannah Mullens in 1852.
In northern India, famous Hindi writer Bhartendu Harishchandra motivated many poets and writers in his circle to translate and recreate novels from other languages. The first Hindi novel was Pariksha Guru written by Srinivas Das. A best seller in Hindi novels came around with Devaki Nandan Khatri’s fantasy saga Chandrakanta which popularised the use of Hindi and the Devanagri script.
PremChand took the Hindi novel to new heights weaving interesting stories in lucid Hindi around the lives of ordinary people. Sewasadan, Rangbhoomi and Godan are some of his famous novels. In southern India, writers like Chandu Menon and Kandukuri Viresinlingam tried to translate English novels into regional Indian languages.
In 1889, Induleka the first Malayalam novel by Chandu Menon was published. Viresalingam wrote a Telugu novel called Rajasekhara Karitamu. In Bengal the novels were based on historical events or the inner world of domestic life. The Indian novel brought together people from different backgrounds and infused a sense of shared community in them.
The growth of the reading public, print and vernaculars proved favourable for the growth of the novel in India in the 19th century.
The earliest novels were written in Marathi and Bengali. Yamuna Paryatan, by Baba Padmanji was one of the first Marathi novels about the miserable life of widows. The first novel in Bengali Karuna O Phulmonir Bibaran was written by Hannah Mullens in 1852.
In northern India, famous Hindi writer Bhartendu Harishchandra motivated many poets and writers in his circle to translate and recreate novels from other languages. The first Hindi novel was Pariksha Guru written by Srinivas Das. A best seller in Hindi novels came around with Devaki Nandan Khatri’s fantasy saga Chandrakanta which popularised the use of Hindi and the Devanagri script.
PremChand took the Hindi novel to new heights weaving interesting stories in lucid Hindi around the lives of ordinary people. Sewasadan, Rangbhoomi and Godan are some of his famous novels. In southern India, writers like Chandu Menon and Kandukuri Viresinlingam tried to translate English novels into regional Indian languages.
In 1889, Induleka the first Malayalam novel by Chandu Menon was published. Viresalingam wrote a Telugu novel called Rajasekhara Karitamu. In Bengal the novels were based on historical events or the inner world of domestic life. The Indian novel brought together people from different backgrounds and infused a sense of shared community in them.
Novels
in the Colonial World
Novels developed during the 17th and the 18th century in Europe when it was
colonising the world. Early English novels like Robinson Crusoe projected the
western world as superior and colonised nations as primitive.
Writers in India felt that the novel allowed them to explore their identities and problems. Many Indian novels criticised the defects in society and suggested reforms. Indian novels were used by British administrators and missionaries as a source of information on the social and religious life of Indians.
Colonial historians showed Indians as weak and dependent on the British. Indian writers wrote novels to glorify Indian history and create a sense of national pride in people. Several novels were written about the Rajputs and the Marathas, and celebrated their adventure, heroism and sacrifice. Premchand depicted collective belonging in his novels by showing characters from all strata of society.
Novels created a sense of collective belonging as they were read by people from all walks of life who shared the same language.
Novels began to depict various dialects and variations in a language making the readers familiar with the different ways in which the same language was spoken by different people. Chandu Menon’s novel InduLeka showed how Indian readers could successfully blend western and Indian lifestyles. The novel favoured the growth of silent reading.
Writers in India felt that the novel allowed them to explore their identities and problems. Many Indian novels criticised the defects in society and suggested reforms. Indian novels were used by British administrators and missionaries as a source of information on the social and religious life of Indians.
Colonial historians showed Indians as weak and dependent on the British. Indian writers wrote novels to glorify Indian history and create a sense of national pride in people. Several novels were written about the Rajputs and the Marathas, and celebrated their adventure, heroism and sacrifice. Premchand depicted collective belonging in his novels by showing characters from all strata of society.
Novels created a sense of collective belonging as they were read by people from all walks of life who shared the same language.
Novels began to depict various dialects and variations in a language making the readers familiar with the different ways in which the same language was spoken by different people. Chandu Menon’s novel InduLeka showed how Indian readers could successfully blend western and Indian lifestyles. The novel favoured the growth of silent reading.
New
Voices in the Indian Novel
As the printing and circulation of novels
increased several new sections of Indian society got introduced to reading and
writing. Many people thought that reading a novel could have adverse effects on
impressionable readers like women and children.
Women liked novels as it told them stories about women who made choices in relationships and gained some control over their lives. The earliest writings by women consisted of poems, essays and autobiographical pieces.
In the 20th century, women in South India began to write novels and short stories. In 1905, Rokeya Hossein, a reformer from Bengal wrote a feminist short story called ‘Sultana’s Dream’ about a female utopia. Indian novels clearly depicted the changing social realities of those times.
The Malayalam novel Indulekha highlighted the marriage debate between the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars. Many people from the suppressed groups like Dalits and peasants began writing as well like Potheri Kunjambu and Advaita Malla Burman. Vaikkom Mohammad Bashir, an early Muslim Malayalam writer, dwelt on personal experience and wrote short stories and novels in a lucid language.
Women liked novels as it told them stories about women who made choices in relationships and gained some control over their lives. The earliest writings by women consisted of poems, essays and autobiographical pieces.
In the 20th century, women in South India began to write novels and short stories. In 1905, Rokeya Hossein, a reformer from Bengal wrote a feminist short story called ‘Sultana’s Dream’ about a female utopia. Indian novels clearly depicted the changing social realities of those times.
The Malayalam novel Indulekha highlighted the marriage debate between the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars. Many people from the suppressed groups like Dalits and peasants began writing as well like Potheri Kunjambu and Advaita Malla Burman. Vaikkom Mohammad Bashir, an early Muslim Malayalam writer, dwelt on personal experience and wrote short stories and novels in a lucid language.
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